Fundamentals of surveying
Roy, S. K.
Fundamentals of surveying - Ed.2 - New Delhi PHI learning pvt. ltd. 2010 - xvii,606p.
CONTENTS
Preface xv
Preface to the First Edition xvii
1.INTRODUCTION 1- 6
1.1 Definition 1
1.2 Classification of Surveying 1
1.3 History of Surveying 2
1.4 Modern Trends in Surveying 3
1.5 The Shape and Size of the Earth 4
1.6 Horizontal and Level Distances 4
Problems 6
References 6
2. ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT 7-26
2.1 Introduction 7
2.2 Types of Errors 7
2.3 Accuracy and Precision of Measurements 8
2.4 Nature of Random Errors 8
2.5 Measures of Precision 10
2.6 The E50, E90 and E95 Errors 12
2.7 Propagation of Random Errors 12
2.8 Error of a Series 19
2.9 Error of a Mean 19
2.10 Weights of Measurements 20
2.11 Theory of Least Squares Applied to Observations of Unequal Weights 21
2.12 Calculating Weights and Corrections to Field Observations 22
Problems 25
3. MEASUREMENT OF HORIZONTAL DISTANCES 27-58
3.1 Introduction 27
3.2 Methods of Measuring Horizontal Distances 27
3.2.1 Pacing 27
3.2.2 Odometer 27
3.2.3 Tacheometry 28
3.2.4 Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM) 28
3.2.5 Chains 28
3.2.6 Tapes 28
3.3 Chaining and Taping Accessories 28
3.4 Measurement by Chain 31
3.5 Reductions to Measurement in Slope 32
3.6 Systematic Errors in Linear Measurement by Chain or Tape 34
3.6.1 Incorrect Length 34
3.6.2 Chain or Tape not Horizontal 35
3.6.3 Fluctuations in Temperature 35
3.6.4 Incorrect Tension or Pull 35
3.6.5 Sag 35
3.6.6 Incorrect Alignment 37
3.6.7 Chain or Tape not Straight 37
3.7 Random Errors 37
3.8 Chain and Tape Survey of a Field 45
3.9 Error in Offset 46
3.10 Instruments for Setting out Right Angles 47
3.10.1 Cross Staff 47
3.10.2 Optical Square 48
3.10.3 Prism square 48
3.11 Miscellaneous Problems in Chaining 49
3.12 Field Work for Chain Surveying 53
3.12.1 Booking the Survey 53
3.12.2 Conventional Symbols 54
3.12.3 Degree of Accuracy of Chaining 55
Problems 56
4. ELECTRONIC DISTANCE MEASUREMENTS 59-77
4.1 Introduction 59
4.2 Basic Concepts 59
4.3 Classification of Electromagnetic Radiation 61
4.4 Basic Principle of Electronic Distance Measurement 62
4.5 Computing the Distance from the Phase Differences 62
4.6 Brief Description of Different types of Instruments 64
4.7 Total Station Instruments 66
4.8 Effect of Atmospheric Conditions on Wave Velocity 67
4.9 Instrumental Errors in EDM 69
4.10 Reduction of Slope Measurements in EDM 69
Problems 77
References 77
5. LEVELLING 78-105
5.1 Introduction 78
5.2 Basic Definitions 78
5.3 Curvature and Refraction 79
5.4 Levelling Instruments 81
5.5 Classification of Surveying Telescope 82
5.6 Lens Formula 83
5.7 Engineer's Levels 86
5.8 Tilting Level 94
5.9 Automatic or Self-Levelling Level 95
5.10 Some Important Optical Terms 96
5.11 Some Important Optical Defects 97
5.12 The Levelling Staff 97
5.13 Parallel Plate Micrometer 100
5.14 Temporary Adjustments of a Dumpy Level 102
5.15 Terms Used in Levelling 103
5.16 Different Methods of Levelling 103
Problems 104
6. LEVELLING 106-142
6.1 Introduction 106
6.2 Differential Levelling 106
6.3 Level Book 107
6.3.1 Rise and Fall Method 108
6.3.2 Height of Collimation Method 108
6.4 Checking of Levels 116
6.5 Errors in Levelling 116
6.5.1 Instrumental Errors 117
6.5.2 Personal Errors 117
6.5.3 Natural Errors 118
6.6 Reducing Errors and Eliminating Mistakes in Levelling 119
6.7 Collimation Correction 119
6.8 Check Levelling 123
6.9 Fly Levelling 123
6.10 Profile Levelling 123
6.11 Cross Sectional Levelling 126
6.11.1 Sight Rails and Boning Rods 127
6.12 Reciprocal Levelling 129
6.13 Two Peg Test 131
6.14 Three Wire Levelling 133
6.15 Error, Adjustment and Precision of Level 134
Problems 139
7. PERMANENT ADJUSTMENTS OF LEVELS 143-147
7.1 Introduction 143
7.2 Permanent Adjustments of a Dumpy Level 143
7.2.1 First Adjustment 144
7.2.2 Second Adjustment 145
7.2.3 Third Adjustment 145
7.3 Adjustments of a Tilting Level 146
7.3.1 First Adjustment 146
7.3.2 Second Adjustment 146
7.3.3 Third Adjustment 147
7.4 Adjustments of Automatic Level 147
Problems 147
8. ANGLES AND DIRECTIONS 148-157
8.1 Introduction 148
8.2 Different Types of Horizontal Angles 148
8.3 Direction of a Linerings 150
8.4 Bearing 150
8.5 Azimuths 150
9. COMPASS SURVEY 158-179
9.1 Introduction 158
9.2 Principle of Compass 158
9.3 Declination 158
9.4 Prismatic Compass 159
9.5 Surveyor's Compass 161
9.6 Trough Compass 163
9.7 Magnetic Declination Problem 164
9.7.1 Analytical Solution 164
9.7.2 Graphical Solution 166
9.8 Compass Traverse 168
9.8.1 Adjustment of Angles of a Closed Traverse 169
9.9 Local Attraction 169
9.10 Adjustment of a Compass Traverse 174
9.11 Errors in Compass Surveying 175 Problems 176
Hints to Selected Questions 179
Reference 179
10. THEODOLITES 180-218
10.1 Introduction 180
10.2 Main Parts of a Vernier Theodolite 180
10.3 Some Basic Definitions 185
10.4 Fundamental Planes and Lines of a Theodolite 186
10.5 Fundamental Operations of the Theodolite 187
10.5.1 Temporary Adjustments of a Theodolite 188
10.6 Verniers 188
10.6.1 Measuring a Horizontal Angle 188
10.6.2 Laying a Horizontal Angle 189
10.7 Accurate Measurement of an Angle 190
10.7.1 Measuring Horizontal Angles by Repetition and Reiteration 191
10.7.2 Laying out Angles by Repetition 192
10.7.3 Extending a Straight Line 192
10.7.4 Method of Reiteration 193
10.7.5 Measurement of Vertical Angle 194
10.8 Errors in Theodolite Angles 194
Instrumental Errors 194
Personal Errors 201
Natural Errors 203
9 Mistakes in Theodolite Angles 203
10 Permanent Adjustments of a Vernier Theodolite 203
1 Plate Bubble Tube 204
2 Crosshairs and Line of Sight 204
3 Adjustment of Telescope Bubble Tube 206
4 Adjustment of Vertical Vernier 207
11 Micrometer Microscope 207
12 Optical Theodolites 208
1 Principle of Optical Microscope and Optical Plummet 209
2 Centring by Centring Rod 211
13 Electronic Theodolites 211
14 Measuring Angles with Direction Theodolites 211 Problems 215
Hints to Selected Questions 217
11. TRAVERSE SURVEY AND COMPUTATIONS 219-257
1 Introduction 219
2 Deficiencies of Open Traverse 220
3 Closed Traverse 220
4 Measurement of Traverse Angles 220
5 Measurement of Lengths 222
6 Selection of Traverse Stations 222
11.6.1 Marking and Referencing of Traverse Stations 223
7 Angle Misclosure 223
1 Balancing the Angles of a Traverse 224
2 Angle Distance Relationship 224
8 Traverse Balancing 226
9 Checks in an Open Traverse 227
11.10 Methods of Traverse Adjustments 227
11.10.1 Arbitrary Method 228
11.10.2 Transit Rule 228
11.10.3 Compass or Bowditch Rule 228
11.10.4 Crandall Method 229
11.10.5 Least Square Method 229
1.11 Rectangular Coordinates 229
1.12 Gale's Traverse Table 230
1.13 Use of Analytical Geometry in Survey Computations 234
1.14 Problems of Omitted Measurements 242
1.15 Finding Mistake in Traversing 250 Problems 253
258-318
Hints to Selected Questions 257
12. CURVES
12.1 Introduction 258
12.2 Basic Definitions 258
12.2.1 Designation of a Curve 259
Elements of a Simple Curve 260
Setting Out of a Curve 260
Problems in Setting out Curves 266
Setting out Curve from an Intermediate Point 268
Setting out the Curve from the Point of Intersection 269
Passing a Circular Curve Through a Fixed Point 270
12.3 Intersection of a Line and Circle 271
12.3.1 Intersection of Two Circular Curves 271
12.3.2 Curve Passing Tangential to Three Lines 272
12.4 Compound Curve 282
12.5 Reverse Curve 288
12.5.1 General Equation of Reverse Curve 289
12.6 Transition Curve 291
12.6.1 Super Elevation 291
12.6.2 Super Elevation on Highways 292
12.7 Centrifugal Ratio 293
12.8 Length of Transition Curve 294
12.9 Ideal Transition Curve 295
12.9.1 Intrinsic Equation of the Ideal Transition Curve 296
12.9.2 Equations of the Curve in Terms of Cartesian Coordinates 297
12.9.3 Minimum Radius of Curvature of a Cubic Parabola 300
12.10 Characteristics of a Transition Curve 301
12.11 Setting out the Combined Curve 304
12.12 The Lemniscate Curve 305
12.12.1 Equation of Bernoulli's Lemniscate 305 Problems 316
13. VERTICAL CURVES 319-338
13.1 Introduction 319
13.2 General Equation of a Parabolic Curve 320
13.3 Computations for an Unequal Tangent Curve 322
13.4 High or Low Point on a Vertical Curve 322
13.5 Vertical Curve Passing Through a Fixed Point 323
13.6 Design of Vertical Curve 323
13.7 Sight Distance of Vertical Curves at a Sag 327 Problems 337
Hints to Selected Questions 338
14. AREAS AND VOLUMES 339-409
14.1 Introduction 339
14.2 Methods of Measuring Area 339
14.2.1 Area of a Tract with Irregular Boundaries 339
14.2.2 Area of a Closed Traverse 343
14.2.3 Coordinates Method 346
14.2.4 Measurement of Area by Planimeter 347
14.2.5 Partitioning Land 349
14.3 Volumes 351
14.3.1 Cross Section Method 351
14.3.2 Formulae for Computation of Volumes 357
14.3.3 Prismoidal Correction or Prismoidal Excess 358
14.3.4 Curvature Correction 359
14.4 Volume Through Transition 360
14.5 Volume from Spot Levels 362
14.6 Volume by Simpson's Cubature Formula 363
14.7 Volume from Contour Plan 364
14.8 Mass Haul Curve 367
14.8.1 Use of the Mass Diagram 369 Problems 405
Hints to Selected Questions 409 References 409
15. TACHEOMETRY 410-454
15.1 Introduction 410
15.2 Instruments 410
15.3 Different Types of Tacheometric Measurements 411
15.4 Principles of Stadia Method 412
15.5 Internal Focussing Telescope 416
15.6 Determination of Tacheometer Constants 417
15.7 Distance and Elevation Formulae 417
15.8 Movable Hair Method 420
15.9 Tangential System of Measurement 422
15.10 Subtense Bar 423
15.11 Computations with Incomplete Intercepts 424
15.12 Relative Merits of Holding the Staff Vertical or Normal
15.13 Problems in Practical Application of Tangential Method
15.14 Tacheometric Calculations and Reductions 43 7
15.15 Errors in Tacheometric Surveying 442
15.16 Uses of Tacheometry 442
15.17 Miscellaneous Examples 443 Problems 452
Reference 454
16.PLANE TABLE SURVEYING
16.1 Introduction 455
16.2 Equipments Required 455
16.3 Working with Plane Table 459
16.4 Different Methods of Plane Table Work 459
16..4.1 Radiation 460
16.4.2 Intersection 460
16.4.3 Traversing 460
16.4.4 Resection 461 Errors in Plane Table 464
Advantages and Disadvantages of Plane Table Survey Analytical and Graphical Solutions 467
Problems 475
17.TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYING
17.1 Introduction 478
17.2 Control for Topographic Surveys 478
17.3 Plotting of Contours 479
17.4 Characteristics of Contour 480
17.5 Methods of Locating Contours 481
17.6 Field Methods of Obtaining Topography
17.7 Sources of Errors in Topographical Surveys
17.8 Inteipolation of Contours 483
17.9 Uses of Contours 484
Problems 487
18. CONSTRUCTION SURVEYING
18.1 Introduction 488
18.2 Equipments for Setting out 488
18.3 Horizontal and Vertical Control 488
18.4 Setting out a Pipeline 489
18.5 Setting out of Buildings and Structures
18.6 Staking out a Highway 492
19. UNDERGROUND SURVEYS
19.1 Introduction 497
19.2 Application of Underground Surveys 498
19.2.1 Surface Survey 498
19.2.2 Vertical Shafts 499
19.2.3 Levels in Tunnels 499
19.3 Aligning the Theodolite 500
19.4 Determination of Azimuth by Gyroscope 501
19.5 Weisbach Triangle 503
19.6 Problems in Tunnel Survey 512
19.7 Analytical Derivations of Underground Surveys 513 Problems 524
20. COMPUTER PROGRAMS IN SURVEYING
20.1 Introduction 525
20.2 Explanation of the Programs 525
Appendix 1 Additional Notes and Solution of Examination Problems Appendix 2 Objective Questions from AMIE Examinations Appendix 3 Objective Questions from IES Examinations Answers to Problems Bibliography Index
9788120341982
624.11 / ROY
Fundamentals of surveying - Ed.2 - New Delhi PHI learning pvt. ltd. 2010 - xvii,606p.
CONTENTS
Preface xv
Preface to the First Edition xvii
1.INTRODUCTION 1- 6
1.1 Definition 1
1.2 Classification of Surveying 1
1.3 History of Surveying 2
1.4 Modern Trends in Surveying 3
1.5 The Shape and Size of the Earth 4
1.6 Horizontal and Level Distances 4
Problems 6
References 6
2. ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT 7-26
2.1 Introduction 7
2.2 Types of Errors 7
2.3 Accuracy and Precision of Measurements 8
2.4 Nature of Random Errors 8
2.5 Measures of Precision 10
2.6 The E50, E90 and E95 Errors 12
2.7 Propagation of Random Errors 12
2.8 Error of a Series 19
2.9 Error of a Mean 19
2.10 Weights of Measurements 20
2.11 Theory of Least Squares Applied to Observations of Unequal Weights 21
2.12 Calculating Weights and Corrections to Field Observations 22
Problems 25
3. MEASUREMENT OF HORIZONTAL DISTANCES 27-58
3.1 Introduction 27
3.2 Methods of Measuring Horizontal Distances 27
3.2.1 Pacing 27
3.2.2 Odometer 27
3.2.3 Tacheometry 28
3.2.4 Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM) 28
3.2.5 Chains 28
3.2.6 Tapes 28
3.3 Chaining and Taping Accessories 28
3.4 Measurement by Chain 31
3.5 Reductions to Measurement in Slope 32
3.6 Systematic Errors in Linear Measurement by Chain or Tape 34
3.6.1 Incorrect Length 34
3.6.2 Chain or Tape not Horizontal 35
3.6.3 Fluctuations in Temperature 35
3.6.4 Incorrect Tension or Pull 35
3.6.5 Sag 35
3.6.6 Incorrect Alignment 37
3.6.7 Chain or Tape not Straight 37
3.7 Random Errors 37
3.8 Chain and Tape Survey of a Field 45
3.9 Error in Offset 46
3.10 Instruments for Setting out Right Angles 47
3.10.1 Cross Staff 47
3.10.2 Optical Square 48
3.10.3 Prism square 48
3.11 Miscellaneous Problems in Chaining 49
3.12 Field Work for Chain Surveying 53
3.12.1 Booking the Survey 53
3.12.2 Conventional Symbols 54
3.12.3 Degree of Accuracy of Chaining 55
Problems 56
4. ELECTRONIC DISTANCE MEASUREMENTS 59-77
4.1 Introduction 59
4.2 Basic Concepts 59
4.3 Classification of Electromagnetic Radiation 61
4.4 Basic Principle of Electronic Distance Measurement 62
4.5 Computing the Distance from the Phase Differences 62
4.6 Brief Description of Different types of Instruments 64
4.7 Total Station Instruments 66
4.8 Effect of Atmospheric Conditions on Wave Velocity 67
4.9 Instrumental Errors in EDM 69
4.10 Reduction of Slope Measurements in EDM 69
Problems 77
References 77
5. LEVELLING 78-105
5.1 Introduction 78
5.2 Basic Definitions 78
5.3 Curvature and Refraction 79
5.4 Levelling Instruments 81
5.5 Classification of Surveying Telescope 82
5.6 Lens Formula 83
5.7 Engineer's Levels 86
5.8 Tilting Level 94
5.9 Automatic or Self-Levelling Level 95
5.10 Some Important Optical Terms 96
5.11 Some Important Optical Defects 97
5.12 The Levelling Staff 97
5.13 Parallel Plate Micrometer 100
5.14 Temporary Adjustments of a Dumpy Level 102
5.15 Terms Used in Levelling 103
5.16 Different Methods of Levelling 103
Problems 104
6. LEVELLING 106-142
6.1 Introduction 106
6.2 Differential Levelling 106
6.3 Level Book 107
6.3.1 Rise and Fall Method 108
6.3.2 Height of Collimation Method 108
6.4 Checking of Levels 116
6.5 Errors in Levelling 116
6.5.1 Instrumental Errors 117
6.5.2 Personal Errors 117
6.5.3 Natural Errors 118
6.6 Reducing Errors and Eliminating Mistakes in Levelling 119
6.7 Collimation Correction 119
6.8 Check Levelling 123
6.9 Fly Levelling 123
6.10 Profile Levelling 123
6.11 Cross Sectional Levelling 126
6.11.1 Sight Rails and Boning Rods 127
6.12 Reciprocal Levelling 129
6.13 Two Peg Test 131
6.14 Three Wire Levelling 133
6.15 Error, Adjustment and Precision of Level 134
Problems 139
7. PERMANENT ADJUSTMENTS OF LEVELS 143-147
7.1 Introduction 143
7.2 Permanent Adjustments of a Dumpy Level 143
7.2.1 First Adjustment 144
7.2.2 Second Adjustment 145
7.2.3 Third Adjustment 145
7.3 Adjustments of a Tilting Level 146
7.3.1 First Adjustment 146
7.3.2 Second Adjustment 146
7.3.3 Third Adjustment 147
7.4 Adjustments of Automatic Level 147
Problems 147
8. ANGLES AND DIRECTIONS 148-157
8.1 Introduction 148
8.2 Different Types of Horizontal Angles 148
8.3 Direction of a Linerings 150
8.4 Bearing 150
8.5 Azimuths 150
9. COMPASS SURVEY 158-179
9.1 Introduction 158
9.2 Principle of Compass 158
9.3 Declination 158
9.4 Prismatic Compass 159
9.5 Surveyor's Compass 161
9.6 Trough Compass 163
9.7 Magnetic Declination Problem 164
9.7.1 Analytical Solution 164
9.7.2 Graphical Solution 166
9.8 Compass Traverse 168
9.8.1 Adjustment of Angles of a Closed Traverse 169
9.9 Local Attraction 169
9.10 Adjustment of a Compass Traverse 174
9.11 Errors in Compass Surveying 175 Problems 176
Hints to Selected Questions 179
Reference 179
10. THEODOLITES 180-218
10.1 Introduction 180
10.2 Main Parts of a Vernier Theodolite 180
10.3 Some Basic Definitions 185
10.4 Fundamental Planes and Lines of a Theodolite 186
10.5 Fundamental Operations of the Theodolite 187
10.5.1 Temporary Adjustments of a Theodolite 188
10.6 Verniers 188
10.6.1 Measuring a Horizontal Angle 188
10.6.2 Laying a Horizontal Angle 189
10.7 Accurate Measurement of an Angle 190
10.7.1 Measuring Horizontal Angles by Repetition and Reiteration 191
10.7.2 Laying out Angles by Repetition 192
10.7.3 Extending a Straight Line 192
10.7.4 Method of Reiteration 193
10.7.5 Measurement of Vertical Angle 194
10.8 Errors in Theodolite Angles 194
Instrumental Errors 194
Personal Errors 201
Natural Errors 203
9 Mistakes in Theodolite Angles 203
10 Permanent Adjustments of a Vernier Theodolite 203
1 Plate Bubble Tube 204
2 Crosshairs and Line of Sight 204
3 Adjustment of Telescope Bubble Tube 206
4 Adjustment of Vertical Vernier 207
11 Micrometer Microscope 207
12 Optical Theodolites 208
1 Principle of Optical Microscope and Optical Plummet 209
2 Centring by Centring Rod 211
13 Electronic Theodolites 211
14 Measuring Angles with Direction Theodolites 211 Problems 215
Hints to Selected Questions 217
11. TRAVERSE SURVEY AND COMPUTATIONS 219-257
1 Introduction 219
2 Deficiencies of Open Traverse 220
3 Closed Traverse 220
4 Measurement of Traverse Angles 220
5 Measurement of Lengths 222
6 Selection of Traverse Stations 222
11.6.1 Marking and Referencing of Traverse Stations 223
7 Angle Misclosure 223
1 Balancing the Angles of a Traverse 224
2 Angle Distance Relationship 224
8 Traverse Balancing 226
9 Checks in an Open Traverse 227
11.10 Methods of Traverse Adjustments 227
11.10.1 Arbitrary Method 228
11.10.2 Transit Rule 228
11.10.3 Compass or Bowditch Rule 228
11.10.4 Crandall Method 229
11.10.5 Least Square Method 229
1.11 Rectangular Coordinates 229
1.12 Gale's Traverse Table 230
1.13 Use of Analytical Geometry in Survey Computations 234
1.14 Problems of Omitted Measurements 242
1.15 Finding Mistake in Traversing 250 Problems 253
258-318
Hints to Selected Questions 257
12. CURVES
12.1 Introduction 258
12.2 Basic Definitions 258
12.2.1 Designation of a Curve 259
Elements of a Simple Curve 260
Setting Out of a Curve 260
Problems in Setting out Curves 266
Setting out Curve from an Intermediate Point 268
Setting out the Curve from the Point of Intersection 269
Passing a Circular Curve Through a Fixed Point 270
12.3 Intersection of a Line and Circle 271
12.3.1 Intersection of Two Circular Curves 271
12.3.2 Curve Passing Tangential to Three Lines 272
12.4 Compound Curve 282
12.5 Reverse Curve 288
12.5.1 General Equation of Reverse Curve 289
12.6 Transition Curve 291
12.6.1 Super Elevation 291
12.6.2 Super Elevation on Highways 292
12.7 Centrifugal Ratio 293
12.8 Length of Transition Curve 294
12.9 Ideal Transition Curve 295
12.9.1 Intrinsic Equation of the Ideal Transition Curve 296
12.9.2 Equations of the Curve in Terms of Cartesian Coordinates 297
12.9.3 Minimum Radius of Curvature of a Cubic Parabola 300
12.10 Characteristics of a Transition Curve 301
12.11 Setting out the Combined Curve 304
12.12 The Lemniscate Curve 305
12.12.1 Equation of Bernoulli's Lemniscate 305 Problems 316
13. VERTICAL CURVES 319-338
13.1 Introduction 319
13.2 General Equation of a Parabolic Curve 320
13.3 Computations for an Unequal Tangent Curve 322
13.4 High or Low Point on a Vertical Curve 322
13.5 Vertical Curve Passing Through a Fixed Point 323
13.6 Design of Vertical Curve 323
13.7 Sight Distance of Vertical Curves at a Sag 327 Problems 337
Hints to Selected Questions 338
14. AREAS AND VOLUMES 339-409
14.1 Introduction 339
14.2 Methods of Measuring Area 339
14.2.1 Area of a Tract with Irregular Boundaries 339
14.2.2 Area of a Closed Traverse 343
14.2.3 Coordinates Method 346
14.2.4 Measurement of Area by Planimeter 347
14.2.5 Partitioning Land 349
14.3 Volumes 351
14.3.1 Cross Section Method 351
14.3.2 Formulae for Computation of Volumes 357
14.3.3 Prismoidal Correction or Prismoidal Excess 358
14.3.4 Curvature Correction 359
14.4 Volume Through Transition 360
14.5 Volume from Spot Levels 362
14.6 Volume by Simpson's Cubature Formula 363
14.7 Volume from Contour Plan 364
14.8 Mass Haul Curve 367
14.8.1 Use of the Mass Diagram 369 Problems 405
Hints to Selected Questions 409 References 409
15. TACHEOMETRY 410-454
15.1 Introduction 410
15.2 Instruments 410
15.3 Different Types of Tacheometric Measurements 411
15.4 Principles of Stadia Method 412
15.5 Internal Focussing Telescope 416
15.6 Determination of Tacheometer Constants 417
15.7 Distance and Elevation Formulae 417
15.8 Movable Hair Method 420
15.9 Tangential System of Measurement 422
15.10 Subtense Bar 423
15.11 Computations with Incomplete Intercepts 424
15.12 Relative Merits of Holding the Staff Vertical or Normal
15.13 Problems in Practical Application of Tangential Method
15.14 Tacheometric Calculations and Reductions 43 7
15.15 Errors in Tacheometric Surveying 442
15.16 Uses of Tacheometry 442
15.17 Miscellaneous Examples 443 Problems 452
Reference 454
16.PLANE TABLE SURVEYING
16.1 Introduction 455
16.2 Equipments Required 455
16.3 Working with Plane Table 459
16.4 Different Methods of Plane Table Work 459
16..4.1 Radiation 460
16.4.2 Intersection 460
16.4.3 Traversing 460
16.4.4 Resection 461 Errors in Plane Table 464
Advantages and Disadvantages of Plane Table Survey Analytical and Graphical Solutions 467
Problems 475
17.TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYING
17.1 Introduction 478
17.2 Control for Topographic Surveys 478
17.3 Plotting of Contours 479
17.4 Characteristics of Contour 480
17.5 Methods of Locating Contours 481
17.6 Field Methods of Obtaining Topography
17.7 Sources of Errors in Topographical Surveys
17.8 Inteipolation of Contours 483
17.9 Uses of Contours 484
Problems 487
18. CONSTRUCTION SURVEYING
18.1 Introduction 488
18.2 Equipments for Setting out 488
18.3 Horizontal and Vertical Control 488
18.4 Setting out a Pipeline 489
18.5 Setting out of Buildings and Structures
18.6 Staking out a Highway 492
19. UNDERGROUND SURVEYS
19.1 Introduction 497
19.2 Application of Underground Surveys 498
19.2.1 Surface Survey 498
19.2.2 Vertical Shafts 499
19.2.3 Levels in Tunnels 499
19.3 Aligning the Theodolite 500
19.4 Determination of Azimuth by Gyroscope 501
19.5 Weisbach Triangle 503
19.6 Problems in Tunnel Survey 512
19.7 Analytical Derivations of Underground Surveys 513 Problems 524
20. COMPUTER PROGRAMS IN SURVEYING
20.1 Introduction 525
20.2 Explanation of the Programs 525
Appendix 1 Additional Notes and Solution of Examination Problems Appendix 2 Objective Questions from AMIE Examinations Appendix 3 Objective Questions from IES Examinations Answers to Problems Bibliography Index
9788120341982
624.11 / ROY