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| 020 | _a9788120341982 | ||
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_a624.11 _bROY |
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| 100 |
_aRoy, S. K. _982896 |
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| 245 | _aFundamentals of surveying | ||
| 250 | _aEd.2 | ||
| 260 |
_c2010 _aNew Delhi _bPHI learning pvt. ltd. |
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| 300 | _axvii,606p. | ||
| 505 | _aCONTENTS Preface xv Preface to the First Edition xvii 1.INTRODUCTION 1- 6 1.1 Definition 1 1.2 Classification of Surveying 1 1.3 History of Surveying 2 1.4 Modern Trends in Surveying 3 1.5 The Shape and Size of the Earth 4 1.6 Horizontal and Level Distances 4 Problems 6 References 6 2. ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT 7-26 2.1 Introduction 7 2.2 Types of Errors 7 2.3 Accuracy and Precision of Measurements 8 2.4 Nature of Random Errors 8 2.5 Measures of Precision 10 2.6 The E50, E90 and E95 Errors 12 2.7 Propagation of Random Errors 12 2.8 Error of a Series 19 2.9 Error of a Mean 19 2.10 Weights of Measurements 20 2.11 Theory of Least Squares Applied to Observations of Unequal Weights 21 2.12 Calculating Weights and Corrections to Field Observations 22 Problems 25 3. MEASUREMENT OF HORIZONTAL DISTANCES 27-58 3.1 Introduction 27 3.2 Methods of Measuring Horizontal Distances 27 3.2.1 Pacing 27 3.2.2 Odometer 27 3.2.3 Tacheometry 28 3.2.4 Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM) 28 3.2.5 Chains 28 3.2.6 Tapes 28 3.3 Chaining and Taping Accessories 28 3.4 Measurement by Chain 31 3.5 Reductions to Measurement in Slope 32 3.6 Systematic Errors in Linear Measurement by Chain or Tape 34 3.6.1 Incorrect Length 34 3.6.2 Chain or Tape not Horizontal 35 3.6.3 Fluctuations in Temperature 35 3.6.4 Incorrect Tension or Pull 35 3.6.5 Sag 35 3.6.6 Incorrect Alignment 37 3.6.7 Chain or Tape not Straight 37 3.7 Random Errors 37 3.8 Chain and Tape Survey of a Field 45 3.9 Error in Offset 46 3.10 Instruments for Setting out Right Angles 47 3.10.1 Cross Staff 47 3.10.2 Optical Square 48 3.10.3 Prism square 48 3.11 Miscellaneous Problems in Chaining 49 3.12 Field Work for Chain Surveying 53 3.12.1 Booking the Survey 53 3.12.2 Conventional Symbols 54 3.12.3 Degree of Accuracy of Chaining 55 Problems 56 4. ELECTRONIC DISTANCE MEASUREMENTS 59-77 4.1 Introduction 59 4.2 Basic Concepts 59 4.3 Classification of Electromagnetic Radiation 61 4.4 Basic Principle of Electronic Distance Measurement 62 4.5 Computing the Distance from the Phase Differences 62 4.6 Brief Description of Different types of Instruments 64 4.7 Total Station Instruments 66 4.8 Effect of Atmospheric Conditions on Wave Velocity 67 4.9 Instrumental Errors in EDM 69 4.10 Reduction of Slope Measurements in EDM 69 Problems 77 References 77 5. LEVELLING 78-105 5.1 Introduction 78 5.2 Basic Definitions 78 5.3 Curvature and Refraction 79 5.4 Levelling Instruments 81 5.5 Classification of Surveying Telescope 82 5.6 Lens Formula 83 5.7 Engineer's Levels 86 5.8 Tilting Level 94 5.9 Automatic or Self-Levelling Level 95 5.10 Some Important Optical Terms 96 5.11 Some Important Optical Defects 97 5.12 The Levelling Staff 97 5.13 Parallel Plate Micrometer 100 5.14 Temporary Adjustments of a Dumpy Level 102 5.15 Terms Used in Levelling 103 5.16 Different Methods of Levelling 103 Problems 104 6. LEVELLING 106-142 6.1 Introduction 106 6.2 Differential Levelling 106 6.3 Level Book 107 6.3.1 Rise and Fall Method 108 6.3.2 Height of Collimation Method 108 6.4 Checking of Levels 116 6.5 Errors in Levelling 116 6.5.1 Instrumental Errors 117 6.5.2 Personal Errors 117 6.5.3 Natural Errors 118 6.6 Reducing Errors and Eliminating Mistakes in Levelling 119 6.7 Collimation Correction 119 6.8 Check Levelling 123 6.9 Fly Levelling 123 6.10 Profile Levelling 123 6.11 Cross Sectional Levelling 126 6.11.1 Sight Rails and Boning Rods 127 6.12 Reciprocal Levelling 129 6.13 Two Peg Test 131 6.14 Three Wire Levelling 133 6.15 Error, Adjustment and Precision of Level 134 Problems 139 7. PERMANENT ADJUSTMENTS OF LEVELS 143-147 7.1 Introduction 143 7.2 Permanent Adjustments of a Dumpy Level 143 7.2.1 First Adjustment 144 7.2.2 Second Adjustment 145 7.2.3 Third Adjustment 145 7.3 Adjustments of a Tilting Level 146 7.3.1 First Adjustment 146 7.3.2 Second Adjustment 146 7.3.3 Third Adjustment 147 7.4 Adjustments of Automatic Level 147 Problems 147 8. ANGLES AND DIRECTIONS 148-157 8.1 Introduction 148 8.2 Different Types of Horizontal Angles 148 8.3 Direction of a Linerings 150 8.4 Bearing 150 8.5 Azimuths 150 9. COMPASS SURVEY 158-179 9.1 Introduction 158 9.2 Principle of Compass 158 9.3 Declination 158 9.4 Prismatic Compass 159 9.5 Surveyor's Compass 161 9.6 Trough Compass 163 9.7 Magnetic Declination Problem 164 9.7.1 Analytical Solution 164 9.7.2 Graphical Solution 166 9.8 Compass Traverse 168 9.8.1 Adjustment of Angles of a Closed Traverse 169 9.9 Local Attraction 169 9.10 Adjustment of a Compass Traverse 174 9.11 Errors in Compass Surveying 175 Problems 176 Hints to Selected Questions 179 Reference 179 10. THEODOLITES 180-218 10.1 Introduction 180 10.2 Main Parts of a Vernier Theodolite 180 10.3 Some Basic Definitions 185 10.4 Fundamental Planes and Lines of a Theodolite 186 10.5 Fundamental Operations of the Theodolite 187 10.5.1 Temporary Adjustments of a Theodolite 188 10.6 Verniers 188 10.6.1 Measuring a Horizontal Angle 188 10.6.2 Laying a Horizontal Angle 189 10.7 Accurate Measurement of an Angle 190 10.7.1 Measuring Horizontal Angles by Repetition and Reiteration 191 10.7.2 Laying out Angles by Repetition 192 10.7.3 Extending a Straight Line 192 10.7.4 Method of Reiteration 193 10.7.5 Measurement of Vertical Angle 194 10.8 Errors in Theodolite Angles 194 Instrumental Errors 194 Personal Errors 201 Natural Errors 203 9 Mistakes in Theodolite Angles 203 10 Permanent Adjustments of a Vernier Theodolite 203 1 Plate Bubble Tube 204 2 Crosshairs and Line of Sight 204 3 Adjustment of Telescope Bubble Tube 206 4 Adjustment of Vertical Vernier 207 11 Micrometer Microscope 207 12 Optical Theodolites 208 1 Principle of Optical Microscope and Optical Plummet 209 2 Centring by Centring Rod 211 13 Electronic Theodolites 211 14 Measuring Angles with Direction Theodolites 211 Problems 215 Hints to Selected Questions 217 11. TRAVERSE SURVEY AND COMPUTATIONS 219-257 1 Introduction 219 2 Deficiencies of Open Traverse 220 3 Closed Traverse 220 4 Measurement of Traverse Angles 220 5 Measurement of Lengths 222 6 Selection of Traverse Stations 222 11.6.1 Marking and Referencing of Traverse Stations 223 7 Angle Misclosure 223 1 Balancing the Angles of a Traverse 224 2 Angle Distance Relationship 224 8 Traverse Balancing 226 9 Checks in an Open Traverse 227 11.10 Methods of Traverse Adjustments 227 11.10.1 Arbitrary Method 228 11.10.2 Transit Rule 228 11.10.3 Compass or Bowditch Rule 228 11.10.4 Crandall Method 229 11.10.5 Least Square Method 229 1.11 Rectangular Coordinates 229 1.12 Gale's Traverse Table 230 1.13 Use of Analytical Geometry in Survey Computations 234 1.14 Problems of Omitted Measurements 242 1.15 Finding Mistake in Traversing 250 Problems 253 258-318 Hints to Selected Questions 257 12. CURVES 12.1 Introduction 258 12.2 Basic Definitions 258 12.2.1 Designation of a Curve 259 Elements of a Simple Curve 260 Setting Out of a Curve 260 Problems in Setting out Curves 266 Setting out Curve from an Intermediate Point 268 Setting out the Curve from the Point of Intersection 269 Passing a Circular Curve Through a Fixed Point 270 12.3 Intersection of a Line and Circle 271 12.3.1 Intersection of Two Circular Curves 271 12.3.2 Curve Passing Tangential to Three Lines 272 12.4 Compound Curve 282 12.5 Reverse Curve 288 12.5.1 General Equation of Reverse Curve 289 12.6 Transition Curve 291 12.6.1 Super Elevation 291 12.6.2 Super Elevation on Highways 292 12.7 Centrifugal Ratio 293 12.8 Length of Transition Curve 294 12.9 Ideal Transition Curve 295 12.9.1 Intrinsic Equation of the Ideal Transition Curve 296 12.9.2 Equations of the Curve in Terms of Cartesian Coordinates 297 12.9.3 Minimum Radius of Curvature of a Cubic Parabola 300 12.10 Characteristics of a Transition Curve 301 12.11 Setting out the Combined Curve 304 12.12 The Lemniscate Curve 305 12.12.1 Equation of Bernoulli's Lemniscate 305 Problems 316 13. VERTICAL CURVES 319-338 13.1 Introduction 319 13.2 General Equation of a Parabolic Curve 320 13.3 Computations for an Unequal Tangent Curve 322 13.4 High or Low Point on a Vertical Curve 322 13.5 Vertical Curve Passing Through a Fixed Point 323 13.6 Design of Vertical Curve 323 13.7 Sight Distance of Vertical Curves at a Sag 327 Problems 337 Hints to Selected Questions 338 14. AREAS AND VOLUMES 339-409 14.1 Introduction 339 14.2 Methods of Measuring Area 339 14.2.1 Area of a Tract with Irregular Boundaries 339 14.2.2 Area of a Closed Traverse 343 14.2.3 Coordinates Method 346 14.2.4 Measurement of Area by Planimeter 347 14.2.5 Partitioning Land 349 14.3 Volumes 351 14.3.1 Cross Section Method 351 14.3.2 Formulae for Computation of Volumes 357 14.3.3 Prismoidal Correction or Prismoidal Excess 358 14.3.4 Curvature Correction 359 14.4 Volume Through Transition 360 14.5 Volume from Spot Levels 362 14.6 Volume by Simpson's Cubature Formula 363 14.7 Volume from Contour Plan 364 14.8 Mass Haul Curve 367 14.8.1 Use of the Mass Diagram 369 Problems 405 Hints to Selected Questions 409 References 409 15. TACHEOMETRY 410-454 15.1 Introduction 410 15.2 Instruments 410 15.3 Different Types of Tacheometric Measurements 411 15.4 Principles of Stadia Method 412 15.5 Internal Focussing Telescope 416 15.6 Determination of Tacheometer Constants 417 15.7 Distance and Elevation Formulae 417 15.8 Movable Hair Method 420 15.9 Tangential System of Measurement 422 15.10 Subtense Bar 423 15.11 Computations with Incomplete Intercepts 424 15.12 Relative Merits of Holding the Staff Vertical or Normal 15.13 Problems in Practical Application of Tangential Method 15.14 Tacheometric Calculations and Reductions 43 7 15.15 Errors in Tacheometric Surveying 442 15.16 Uses of Tacheometry 442 15.17 Miscellaneous Examples 443 Problems 452 Reference 454 16.PLANE TABLE SURVEYING 16.1 Introduction 455 16.2 Equipments Required 455 16.3 Working with Plane Table 459 16.4 Different Methods of Plane Table Work 459 16..4.1 Radiation 460 16.4.2 Intersection 460 16.4.3 Traversing 460 16.4.4 Resection 461 Errors in Plane Table 464 Advantages and Disadvantages of Plane Table Survey Analytical and Graphical Solutions 467 Problems 475 17.TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYING 17.1 Introduction 478 17.2 Control for Topographic Surveys 478 17.3 Plotting of Contours 479 17.4 Characteristics of Contour 480 17.5 Methods of Locating Contours 481 17.6 Field Methods of Obtaining Topography 17.7 Sources of Errors in Topographical Surveys 17.8 Inteipolation of Contours 483 17.9 Uses of Contours 484 Problems 487 18. CONSTRUCTION SURVEYING 18.1 Introduction 488 18.2 Equipments for Setting out 488 18.3 Horizontal and Vertical Control 488 18.4 Setting out a Pipeline 489 18.5 Setting out of Buildings and Structures 18.6 Staking out a Highway 492 19. UNDERGROUND SURVEYS 19.1 Introduction 497 19.2 Application of Underground Surveys 498 19.2.1 Surface Survey 498 19.2.2 Vertical Shafts 499 19.2.3 Levels in Tunnels 499 19.3 Aligning the Theodolite 500 19.4 Determination of Azimuth by Gyroscope 501 19.5 Weisbach Triangle 503 19.6 Problems in Tunnel Survey 512 19.7 Analytical Derivations of Underground Surveys 513 Problems 524 20. COMPUTER PROGRAMS IN SURVEYING 20.1 Introduction 525 20.2 Explanation of the Programs 525 Appendix 1 Additional Notes and Solution of Examination Problems Appendix 2 Objective Questions from AMIE Examinations Appendix 3 Objective Questions from IES Examinations Answers to Problems Bibliography Index | ||
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