CONTENTS Introduction 1 Chapter 1: Place 1.1 Place 21 1.1.1 Relevance of Place 1.1.2 Significance of the Vertical Axis 1.1.3 Cyclic Notion of Time and Emphasis on the Vertical Axis 1.1.4 The Mythical Mountain and the Levels to Heaven 1.2 Origin of the Stronghold and Shrine 24 1.2.1 Submission of Peasant Communities to Religious and Political Power 1.2.2 The Citadel as a Symbolic Entity 1.2.3 Building of Shrines and Strongholds as a Process Concretizing Power 1.3 Tibetan Antecedents to the Dzong in Bhutan 26 1.3.1 Political Scenario in Tibet 1.3.2 The Earliest Towers 1.3.3 Buddhist Monasteries and Defence Structures 1.3.4 Parallel Developments in Bhutan: Khar Towers 1.4 Bhutan: Geographical and Demographic Aspects 36 1.4.1 Topography and Climate 1.4.2 Demography 1.5 Bhutan as a Place 39 1.5.1 Character of Place in Bhutan 1.5.2 Identification by Character of Place 1.5.3 Relevance of Place in Cultural and Political Developments 1.6 Elements Marking Place in the Bhutanese Landscape 42 1.6.1 Chortens 1.6.2 Bridges 1.6.3 Dzongs 1.6.4 A Dzong in each Valley: Implications Chapter 2: Meaning 2.1 Meaning in the Environment 52 2.1.1 Built Environment as a Means of Representation 2.1.2 Relevance of Environmental Cues 2.1.3 Predictability and Successful Communication of Meaning 2.2 Mythology and Religion 54 2.2.1 Role of Mythology in the Construction of Identity, Place and Meaning 2.2.2 Pre-Buddhist Beliefs in Bhutan 2.2.3 Introduction of Buddhism in Bhutanese Society 2.2.4 Meanings associated with Dzong in Bhutanese Society 2.2.5 Deification of Super-Achievers as Means of Social Remembrance 2.2.6 Deification of the Teacher 2.2.7 Rituals 2.3 Society in Bhutan 60 2.3.1 Folklore 2.3.2 Role of Dzongkha as a Unifying Language 2.3.3 Communication of Social Position by Clothing 2.3.4 Social Organization 2.3.5 Position of Women in Society 2.3.6 Dichotomies of the Past and Future: Socio-Cultural Change 2.4 Encoded Meanings in the Built Environment 65 2.4.1 Place and Meaning as made Tangible through the Settlement 2.4.2 Relevance of the Use of Stone for Religious Structures 2.4.3 Roofs as Indicators of Identity 2.4.4 The Kemar Band as an Indicator of Religious Buildings 2.4.5 Openings Chapter 3: Identity through the Dzong 3.1 Phases of Political Developments in Bhutan 74 3.1.1 1628-1651: Founding of a Bhutanese Identity: Shabdrung's Era 3.1.2 1651-1907: Intermediate Phase: Between the Founding Rule and Monarchy 3.1.3 1907-1952: Establishment of Monarchy: Reign of the First and Second Kings 3.1.4 1952-1972: Emergence of a Modern Nation: Reign of the Third King 3.1.5 1972-2007: Precursor to Democracy: Reign of the Fourth King 3.2 The Process of Building 95 3.2.1 Building Processes within the Settlement 3.2.2 Building Process of a Dzong: A Fulcrum in the Continuity of Culture in Bhutan 3.2.2 Rebuilding: Transience and Permanence 3.2.4 Rebuilding a Dzong: a Vital Socio-Cultural Process 3.3 Representative Examples 102 3.3.1 The First Step: Simtokha Dzong 3.3.2 Collective Karma: Punakha Dzong 3.3.3 A Nation at Equipose: Tashicho Dzong Conclusions 157 Chronological Chart: Tibet and Bhutan 170 Appendices I, II, III 172 Bibliography 184 Acklowledgements