CONTENTS Foreword xi Preface xiii Acknowledgments xv Abbreviations xvii Overview 1 Study Methodology 2 Progress toward Ensuring Equal Legal and Economic Status for Women 3 Barriers to Women's Full Eeonomic Participation Remain 4 The Need for Additional Research 7 The Need for Action 8 1 Female Employment and the Working Environment 9 Female Participation in the Labor Market 10 The Working Environment for Men and Women in the Manufacturing Sector 12 Notes 22 2 Women's Entrepreneurship 23 Women's Ownership of Firms 24 Improvements in the Business Environment 25 Different Constraints Facing Male and Female Entrepreneurs 26 Organizations Fostering Women in Business 27 3 Labor Markets, Firm Productivity, and Gender 29 Sex Segregation in Egypt 30 Factors Affecting the Probability of Employing Women 33 Gender Composition and Productivity 37 Annex 41 Notes 41 4 Women's Access to Finance 43 The Limited Role of Formal Financing 44 The Limited Role of Banking, Targeted Initiatives for Women, and Microcredit 45 The Need for Education and Financial and Business Management Training 48 The Need for New Reforms 48 Note 49 5 Social Safety Nets, Security, and Gender 51 Work Contracts 52 Lack of Separate Physical Accommodations for Women in the Workplace 55 Union Membership 56 6 Enhancing Women's Participation in Economic Activities: The Way Forward 57 Continuing to Improve the Business Environment 58 Addressing Norms, Traditions, and Legal Discrimination 58 Encouraging Women to Join the Labor Force 59 Improving Employment Conditions for Female Workers 59 Increasing Women's Access to Finance, Including through Microcredit 60 Enhancing Vocational Training for Girls and Training for Female Workers 61 Conducting Research and Sex-Disaggregated Analysis of the Work Environment 62 Note 62 Appendix Characteristics of Surveyed Workers 63 References 71 Index75