CONTENTS Illustrations xii Preface xvii Abbreviations xix Introduction 1 PART I The nature of transport 5 1 Transport and economic development 9 1.1 Introduction 9 1.2 Transport and the economy 9 1.3 Transport supply 13 1.4 Transport costs 18 1.5 Car ownership, licence-holding and car availability 22 2 Population, land use and travel 26 2.1 Introduction 26 2.2 Population and settlement 26 2.3 Age structure 28 2.4 Household composition, size and income 29 2.5 Economic activity and employment 30 2.6 Land use patterns 33 2.7 Persona/ activity and use of time 36 2.8 Personal travel by mode and trip purpose 39 2.9 Variations in travel by settlement size and socio-economic group 42 3 Traffic, its impacts and public attitudes 45 3.1 Introduction 45 3.2 Traffic volume, composition and distribution 46 3.3 Casualties 49 3.4 Perceived danger and insecurity 52 3.5 Noise 53 3.6 Local air pollution 5 5 3.7 Visual intrusion 57 3.8 Fuel consumption, CO2 emissions and climate change 58 3.9 Public attitudes 59 PART II The evolution of transport policy and planning 65 4 Before mass motorisation: the period to 1955 67 4.1 Introduction 67 4.2 Early improvements to roads and waterways 68 4.3 The development of the railway network 69 4.4 Coping with the motor vehicle 71 4.5 Regulating urban passenger transport 73 4.6 Developing a national road network 75 4.7 Nationalised transport 76 4.8 Controlling development 77 5 The motorway age (1955-79) 79 5.1 Introduction 79 5.2 The inter-urban motorway programme 79 5.3 The Reshaping of British Railways 82 5.4 Post-war town planning: new towns and green belts 84 5.5 Traffic in Towns 86 5.6 Urban transport planning 88 5.7 'Homes be/ore Roads' - the demise of urban motorways 90 5.8 Maintaining socially necessary services 92 5.9 'The party's over' - adjusting to resource constraints 93 6 The Conservatives after 1979: 'rolling back the state' 96 6.1 Introduction: the return of ideology 96 6.2 Testing the water: deregulation, commercialisation and privatisation 97 6.3 The assault on local government 98 6.4 Bus deregulation 99 6.5 Rail privatisation 100 6.6 New rail developments 102 6.7 The re-making of development planning 104 6.8 Inner cities and urban development corporations 105 6.9 'Roads for Prosperity' 106 1 The 1990s paradigm shift: new realism and sustainable development 109 7.1 Introduction 109 7.2 Climb-down over the National Roads Programme 110 7.3 The new realism 111 7.4 'Sustainable development' 113 7.5 PPG/3 - 'Reducing the need to travel' 115 7.6 Environmental assessment 117 7.7 The'Great Debate' 118 7.8 The revival of planning 120 7.9 Local transport planning 121 8 A new deal for transport?: New Labour 1997-2004 123 8.1 Introduction 123 8.2 'A consensus for radical change' 123 8.3 The content of the 1998 White Paper 125 8.4 Changes to local and regional government 128 8.5 The Ten-Year Transport Plan 129 8.6 Blown off course: the road hauliers' blockade and the Hatfield rail crash 132 8.7 Breaking the Logjam - urban road user charging 134 8.8 'Sustainable Communities Plan 135 8.9 Glaring the decks - the 2004 White Paper 137 PART III Ends and means 141 9 The State and its role 143 9.1 Introduction 143 9.2 The nature of 'the State 144 9.3 The role of the State 146 9.4 Sources of market failure 147 9.5 The treatment of equity 152 9.6 Conclusion on State action 156 10 Institutional arrangements 157 10.1 Introduction 157 10.2 The structuring of Central Government 158 10.3 Devolved government and regional administration 164 10.4 Public and private ownerships 166 10.5 Executive agencies and other public foodies 168 10.6 Local government 169 11Policy aims: issues, objectives and targets 176 11.1 Introduction 176 11.2 Issues 176 11.3 The role of objectives 182 11.4 Objectives set nationally 183 11.5 The role of targets 186 11.6 Targets set nationally 189 12 Policy instruments (1): infrastructure investment 192 12.1 Introduction 192 12.2 The nature of investment 193 12.3 The rationale for public investment 194 12.4 The financing of public investment 197 12.5 Recent government policy towards transport investment 200 12.6 Investment appraisal and cost-benefit analysis 203 13 Policy instruments (2): the regulation of vehicles, operators and services 207 13.1 Introduction 207 13.2 The licensing of motor vehicles, drivers and operators 208 13.3 Competition m the transport industries 210 13.4 Rail regulation 213 13.5 Regulation of bus and coach services 214 13.6 Taxis and other demand-responsive transport 220 13.7 Community transport 2 21 14 Policy Instruments (3): the regulation of traffic and development 223 14.1 Introduction 223 14.2 The changing role of traffic management 224 14.3 Traffic management: responsibilities and powers 225 14.4 Network management 228 14.5 Control ofon-street parking 229 14.6 Speed limits 231 14.7 Traffic calming and street management 233 14.8 Air quality management 235 14.9 Control of development (including private off-street parking) 237 15 Policy instruments (4): fiscal measures 242 15.1 Introduction 242 15.2 Motoring taxation 243 15.3 Parking charges 245 15.4 Road user charging 247 15.5 Rail passenger service subsidies and fare regulation 249 15.6 Bus service subsidies 251 15.7 Concessionary fares 253 15.8 School transport256 16 Behavioural change measures ('Smarter Choices') 258 16.1 Introduction 258 16.2 Car dependency 259 16.3 The stance of central government 262 16.4 Overview of 'Smarter Choices' 263 16.5 Travel plans 266 16.6 Marketing and the 'Sustainable Towns' initiative 271 PART IV Strategies, plans and planning procedures 275 17 National planning 277 17.1 Introduction 277 17.2 The nature of planning 211 17.3 The pattern of plans 280 17.4 The meaning of 'national planning' 282 17.5 National planning in England 283 17.6 National planning in Wales 286 17.7 National planning in Scotland 288 17.8 Sub-national planning; an overview 290 , 18 Regional strategies 293 18.1 Introduction 293 18.2 Strategic planning in the English regions 293 18.3 Regional Spatial Strategies 296 18.4 Regional Transport Strategies 300 18.5 Changes consequent on the Sub-National Review 302 18.6 Strategic planning in London 304 18.7 Regional Transport Strategies in Wales 305 18.8 Regional Transport Strategies in Scotland 308 19 Local development frameworks, community strategies and area agreements 3,11 19.1 Introduction 311 19.2 Distinctive features of the development planning system 312 19.3 The role of local development plans 313 19.4 Local Development Frameworks 315 19.5 The form and content of development plan documents 319 19.6 Local development planning in Wales and Scotland 322 19.7 Sustainable Community Strategies 323 19.8 The new local performance framework and Local Area Agreements 325 20 Local transport plans 330 20.1 Introduction 330 20.2 The role of Local Transport Plans 330 20.3 Procedures for preparing LTPs 332 20.4 The funding context for LTPs 335 20.5 The form and content of LTPs 3 38 20.6 Objectives and priorities 339 20.7 Performance indicators and targets 341 20.8 The treatment of major schemes 343 20.9 Local Transport Planning in London, Wales and Scotland 344 21 Project appraisal 348 21.1 Introduction 348 21.2 The common appraisal process and its significance 348 21.3 The Appraisal Summary Table (AST) 349 21.4 Forecasts and modelling 351 21.5 'Value for money 3 53 21.6 The generation of proposals 361 21.7 Supplementary analyses 363 21.8 Sustainabiliry Appraisal (SEA) 366 22 The approval of plans and projects 367 22.1 Introduction 367 22.2 Regional Spatial Strategies and Development Plan Documents 367 22.3 Individual development proposals 370 22.4 Public inquiries 372 22.5 The Infrastructure Planning Commission 374 22.6 Regional Funding Allocation 377 22.7 Funding approval for major transport schemes 380 PART V The contemporary policy agenda 385 23 The immediate agenda 387 23.1 Introduction 387 23.2 The National Roads Programme 387 23.3 National road user charging 390 23.4 The Transport Innovation Fund 392 23.5 A strategy for National Rail 394 23.6 Putting Passengers First 397 23.7 Transport governance in city regions 400 23.8 Growth Points, Eco-towns and the Community Infrastructure Levy 402 23.9 The D/T's current Vision' and targets 405 24 Future scenarios and strategic choices 408 24.1 Introduction 408 24.2 Thinking about the future 409 24-3 The Stern Review and the Climate Change Programme 411 24.4 further scenarios for reducing CO2 emissions from transport 413 24.5 The Hddington Report 418 24.6 Roads and Reality 421 24.7 Towards a Sustainable Transport System 425 24.8 Goals, challenges and the NATA refresh 428 25 Postscript: thinking afresh 433 25.1 Introduction 433 25.2 A holistic view: behavioural change not business as usual 434 25.3 Priority objectives: reducing traffic growth and protecting accessibility 437 25.4 Lessening individual car ownership 438 25.5 Rethinking inter-urban travel 442 25.6 Better use o/inter-urfcan roads 444 25.7 Conclusion 448 Bibliography 449 Government publications 456 Index 461