CONTENTS Part I: Introduction to acquisition of 3D topography 1 1 Introduction 3 1.1 3D Topography 4 1.2 Scope and limitations 6 1.3 Input data 6 1.4 Research problems 7 1.5 Goal and objectives 8 1.6 Importance 9 1.7 Thesis outline 9 2 Use of 3D topography 11 2.1 Introduction 12 2.2 User requirements 13 2.2.1 Municipality of Den Bosch 13 2.2.2 Survey Department of Rijkswaterstaat 13 2.2.3 Water board Hoogheemraadschap de Stichtsche Rijnlanden 15 2.2.4 Topographic Service of the Dutch Cadastre 15 2.3 Re-using 3D models 16 2.3.1 Municipality of Den Bosch 18 2.3.2 Survey Department of Rijkswaterstaat 19 2.3.3 Water board Hoogheemraadschap de Stichtsche Rijnlanden 19 2.3.4 Topographic Service of the Dutch Cadastre 19 2.3.5 Availability and distribution 19 2.3.6 Data fusion 19 2.3.7 Generalization and filtering 20 2.3.8 3D Represents as-is situation 20 2.4 Role of use cases in research project 20 2.5 Recent developments in using 3D topography 21 2.6 Conclusions 22 Part II: 3D Roads 25 3 3D Reconstruction of roads 27 3.1 Introduction 28 3.2 Related work 29 3.2.1 Road reconstruction from aerial images 29 3.2.2 2D Road mapping from laser data 29 3.2.3 3D Reconstruction from laser data 30 3.3 Proposed approach 30 3.4 Data sources 32 3.4.1 Airborne laser scanner data 33 3.4.2 Pre-processing laser data 33 3.4.3 2D Topographic map data 34 3.4.4 Pre-processing 2D map 34 3.5 Fusion of map and laser data 35 3.5.1 Research problems on fusing map and laser data 35 3.5.2 Proposed fusion algorithm 36 3.6 3D Reconstruction of polygons 39 3.6.1 Polygon boundaries 39 3.6.2 Additional polygons 40 3.6.3 Assumptions on boundaries 41 3.6.4 Surfaces 42 3.7 Results 43 3.7.1 Interchange Prins Clausplein 43 3.7.2 Interchange Waterberg 45 3.8 Discussion 47 3.8.1 Parameter settings 47 3.8.2 Topological correctness 49 4 Quality analysis on 3D roads 51 4.1 Error propagation 52 4.1.1 Quality of plane at map point location 52 4.1.2 Quality of laser block 53 4.1.3 Quality of plane model 53 4.2 Reference data 56 4.2.1 Height differences between reference data and 3D model .57 4.3 Testing of predicted quality60 4.4 Discussion 62 Part III: 3D Buildings 65 5 Building shape detection 67 5.1 Introduction 68 5.1.1 Real buildings vs 3D model representation 69 5.1.2 Real buildings vs appearance in input data 70 5.1.3 Appearance in input data vs 3D model representation 70 5.2 Related work 71 5.2.1 2D Mapping of building outlines 71 5.2.2 3D Reconstruction of buildings 72 5.3 Research problems 73 5.3.1 Problems on roof shape detection 74 5.3.2 Problems on scene complexity 77 5.4 Proposed approach 78 5.5 Information from map data 80 5.6 Features from laser data 81 5.6.1 Segmentation of laser scanner data 81 5.6.2 Intersection lines 82 5.6.3 Step edges 83 5.6.4 Roof topology graph 85 5.7 Target graphs 86 5.8 Target based graph matching 87 5.9 Complete matching results 89 5.10 Incomplete matching results 90 6 3D Building Reconstruction 93 6.1 Introduction 94 6.2 Components of a roof boundary 95 6.3 Approach 1: Combine features from complete match results 6 6.4 Extension of horizontal intersection lines 98 6.5 Outer boundaries of roof faces 100 6.5.1 Flat roof faces 100 6.5.2 Have construction 101 6.5.3 Gutter construction 101 6.6 Dormers and step edges 102 6.6.1 Simple dormers 102 6.6.2 Step edges 103 6.6.3 Step edges for map subdivision 104 6.7 Reconstruction of walls 105 6.8 Approach 2: reconstructed targets 106 6.8.1 Parameterised target models 107 6.8.2 Use of map data 110 6.8.3 Limitations 111 6.8.4 Potential use 111 6.9 Summary 114 7 Results and evaluation 115 7.1 Introduction. 116 7.2 Results 119 7.2.1 Approach 1: Combined features 119 7.2.2 Approach 2: Reconstructed targets 123 7.3 Evaluation 127 7.3.1 Laser data features 128 7.3.2 Evaluation on target based matching 133 7.3.3 Reconstructed models 138 7.3.4 Problematic situations. 146 7.3.5 Performance in time 150 7.4 Potential for nation wide 3D building database 151 7.5 Summary 152 Part IV: Conclusions and recommendations 153 8 Conclusions and recommendations 153 8.1 Conclusions 154 8.1.1 3D Topographic object reconstruction 154 8.1.2 3D Road reconstruction 154 8.1.3 3D Building reconstruction 155 8.2 Recommendations 157 List of publications 159 Bibliography 160 Summary 165 Samenvatting 168 ITC Dissertation List 172 Curriculum Vitae 173