CONTENTS Acknowledgments xiii About the Authors xv Abbreviations xvii Executive Summary I General Findings 2 Regional Findings 3 Policy Implications 5 1. Overview 7 Main Types of Bioenergy8 This Report I I Total Bioenergy Supply and Contribution to TPES 12 Outlook for Bioenergy Consumption 13 Forces Affecting Bioenergy Development 17 Concerns about Bioenergy Development21 Policies,Targets, and Instruments25 Notes39 2. Solid Biomass41 Long-Term Trend and Outlook for Primary Solid Biomass44 Bioenergy Production from Solid Biomass46 Traditional Uses of Solid Biomass for Energy65 Modern and Industrial Uses of Solid Biomass for Energy70 Energy Systems Based on Biomass Pellets76 Notes86 3. Liquid Biofuels89 Bioethanol for Fuel90 Biodiesel for Fuel93 Economic Viability of Liquid Biofuel Production96 Social and Environmental Impacts99 Notes120 4. Impacts and Issues at the Country and Regional Levels121 Africa122 East Asia and Pacific 127 Europe and Central Asia133 Latin America and the Caribbean 136 Middle East and North Africa 140 South Asia 142 Notes146 5. Conclusions147 General Conclusions147 Regional Conclusions151 Policy Implications153 Note 155 Appendix A: Production of Alcohol Bioenergy from Sugars and Starches 157 Sugarcane157 Corn 163 Sweet Sorghum 167 Cassava170 Nypa Palm173 Notes 175 Appendix B: Production of Bioenergy from Oilseed Crops177 Oil Palm 177 Soybean 184 Rapeseed 189 Jatropha 193 Jojoba 197 Pongamia 199 Notes 202 Appendix C: Second-Generation Bioenergy Production205 Economics of Second-Generation Bioenergy Production209 Economic Impact of Second-Generation Bioenergy Production209 Impact of Second-Generation Bioenergy Production on the Use of Land and Other Resources 210 Environmental Impact of Second-Generation Bioenergy Production211 Notes 211 Appendix D: Third-Generation Bioenergy Production213 Note 215 References 217 Index 233