Content
Preface to the First Edition (1998) ix
Preface to the Second Edition (2014) xi
Foreword to the First Edition (1998) xiii
Reviews to the First Edition ( 1998) xv
Foreword to the Second Edition (2013) xix
Preface to the Third Edition xxi
Acknowledgements xxiii
Credits xxv
Author Biography xxix
Part I THEORETICAL GROUNDS, KEY VARIABLES, MAIN DETERIORATION MECHANISMS
1. Microclimate and Atmospheric Variables
1.1 Microclimate 3
1.2 Air, Water Vapour, Perfect and Real Gases 7
1.3 The Internal Boundary Layer and the Viscous Layer 9
1.4 Coanda Effect 11
1.5 Atmospheric Variables and Parameters 12
References 13
2. Temperature: A Key Variable in Conservation and Thermal Comfort
2.1 Temperature: One Variable, Four Popular Definitions 15
2.2 Mechanisms of Temperature-Induced Deterioration 16
2.3 The Urban Heat Island 21
2.4 Temperature in a Building, a Room 22
2.5 Temperature in a Showcase 28
2.6 People's Thermal Comfort and Discomfort 30
2.7 Is It Possible to Combine People's Comfort, Conservation Needs, and Sustainability? 31
2.8 Planning Air Temperature Monitoring to Study Air-Surface Interactions and for Environmental Diagnostics 36
References 40
Further Reading 42
3. Theoretical Grounds for Humidity
3.1 Partial Pressure of Water Vapour 43
3.2 Derivation of the Latent Heat 44
3.3 Mixing Ratio of Water Vapour and Dry Air 46
3 .4 Specific Humidity 47
3.5 Absolute Humidity 48
3.6 Relative Humidity 48
3.7 Dew Point: The Temperature of Condensation 51
3.8 Frost Point: The Temperature of Freezing 52
3.9 Wet Bulb Temperature: The Temperature of Evaporation 53
3.10 The Psychrometric Chart 55
3.11 Humidity When It Rains or Snows 57
References 59
Further Reading 59
4. Consequences of the Maxwell-Boltzmann
Distribution
4.1 The Maxwell-Boltzmann Equation and the Distribution of Molecules by Velocities 61
4.2 Thermal Emission of Bodies 62
4.3 The Arrhenius Equation 63
4.4 Saturation Pressure of Water Vapour in Air 64
4.5 Relative Humidity and Mutual Distance Between H20 Molecules 65
4.6 The Liquid State and the Free HzO Molecules in It 65
4.7 The Raoult Law for Ideal Solutions 67
4.8 Ebullition and Freezing 67
4.9 An Additional Aspect of Relative Humidity 68
4.10 The Three Classes of Water Vapour 68
4.11 Conclusions 70
References 70
5. Physics of Drop Formation and Micropore Condensation
5.1 How a Curved Water Meniscus Changes the Equilibrium Vapour Tension 73
5.2 Derivation of the Kelvin Equation for Droplet Formation and Micropore Condensation 75
5.3 The Formation of Droplets in the Atmosphere: Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Nucleation 79
5.4 Bubbles 81
5.5 Micropore Condensation and Stone Weathering 82
5.6 Adsorption Isotherms 87
5.7 Freeze-Thaw Cycles 89
References 91
6. Humidity and Deterioration Mechanisms
6.1 Air-Surface Interactions and Environmental Diagnostics 93
6.2 The Equilibrium Moisture Content and Dimensional Changes in Wood 97
6.3 Mechanisms of Humidity Degradation in Paper and Parchment 101
6.4 Biological Habitat and Vacuum Cleaners 106
6.5 Molecular Layers of Water on the Surface of Metals and Glass 109
6.6 Chemical Forms of Decay 111
6.7 A Complex Structure: The Organ Pipe 112
6.8 What Is the Best Microclimate for Conservation? 114
6.9 Keeping Constant Relative Humidity in Rooms and Showcases 115
6.10 Condensation on Cold Surfaces 119
6.11 People as a Moisture Source 120
References 121
7. Atmospheric Water, Capillary Rise, and Stone Weathering
7.1 Atmospheric Pollution, Acid Rain, Rainfall, and Crusts 125
7 .2 Mechanisms of Penetration of Rainwater and Evaporation 134
7.3 Evaporation From Damp Monuments 135
7.4 Capillary Suction 135
7.5 The Equilibrium Vapour Tension Over a Solution 139
7.6 Climate Cycles, Sea Spray, and Salt Damage 139
7. 7 Deliquescence-Crystallization Cycles 14 2
7.8 Some Common Errors That Should Be Avoided 144
References 150
Further Reading 152
8. Rising Damp Treatment and Prevention
8.1 Measures to Counteract Rising Damp 153
8.2 Removing Causes 154
8.3 Hiding Effects 154
8.4 Damp-Proof Course With Physical Barrier 155
8.5 Damp-Proof Course With Chemical Barrier 155
8.6 Increasing Wall Temperature 157
8.7 Ventilation Within the Wall 158
8.8 Ventilating Outside the Wall 159
8.9 Dehumidifying Plasters 159
8.10 Active Electro-Osmosis 159
8.11 Passive Electro-Osmosis 163
8.12 Parapsychological Devices 163
8.13 Drying Damp Murals 164
References 165
Part II ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY, POLLUTANT DISPERSION AND SOILING OF PAINTINGS AND MONUMENTS
9. Parameters to Describe Air Masses and Vertical Air Motions
9.1 Equivalent Temperature 170
9.2 Adiabatic Gradients in Troposphere 170
9.3 Potential Temperature 171
9.4 Equivalent-Potential Temperature 173
9.5 Virtual Temperature 173
References 174
10. Atmospheric Stability and Pollutant Dispersion
10.1 Introduction 175
10.2 Vertical Temperature Gradients and Plume Behaviour 177
10.3 Effects Due to Topographic Horizontal Inhomogeneity 179
10.4 Urban Climate: Heat Island and Aerodynamic Disturbance 181
10.5 Dispersion and Transportation of Pollutants in a City 182
10.6 Wind Friction Near a Surface 183
10.7 Vertical Fluxes of Heat, Moisture and Momentum 183
10.8 Heat Balance at the Soil or the Monument Surface 185
10.9 Main Parameters Used in Measuring Atmospheric Stability and Turbulence 188
10.10 Plume Dispersion 191
10.11 Stability Classes to Evaluate Atmospheric Stability 191
References 194
11. Dry Deposition of Airborne Particulate Matter-Mechanisms and Effects
11 .1 Introduction 197
11.2 Random Walk and Brownian Diffusivity 199
11.3 Brownian Deposition 201
11.4 Thermophoresis 202
11.5 Diffusiophoresis 204
11.6 Stefan Flow 205
11. 7 Gravitational Settling 207
11.8 Electrophoresis 208
11.9 Photophoresis 210
11.10 Aerodynamic Deposition: Inertial Impaction and Interception 210
11.11 Adhesion of Particles to Paintings or Other Surfaces 215
11.12 Vertical Distribution of Particles in Still Air and Their Resuspension by Turbulence 216
11.13 How Soiling Develops 218
11.14 What ls the Most Appropriate Heating and Air Conditioning System to Avoid Soiling? 221
11.15 Inappropriate Positioning of Paintings 226
11.16 Uplifting of Giant Particles and Wind Erosion 227
11.17 Kinetic Energy and Sand Blasting 232
References 233
Part III RADIATION, LIGHT AND COLOURS
12. Radiometric Aspects of Solar Radiation, Blackbody, and Lamp Radiation
12.1 Radiation Emitted by Bodies and Effects of the Absorbed Energy 237
12.2 Radiometric Temperature 239
12.3 Angular Distribution of Radiant Emission of Bodies 240
12.4 Attenuation of Light in the Atmosphere 241
12.5 Daily and Seasonal Cycles of Solar Radiation on Monuments 241
12.6 Length of Shadow 247
12.7 Electric Lamps for Cultural Heritage 249
12.8 Problems Encountered in Exhibition Lighting 255
12.9 Optical Filters and Optical Fibres 258
12.10 Degradation of Works of Art Caused by Light 264
12.11 Photographic Flash Light 267
12.12 Phototrophic Organisms 268
12.13 Photosensitivity Classes of Materials and Exhibition Lighting Recommended by International Standards 269
References 2 71
13. Photometric Aspects of Visible Light and Colours
13.1 Visible Light and Colour Perception 273
13.2 Trichromatic Theory and Metamers 275
13.3 Munsell Colour System (HSV System) 276
13.4 CIE Chromaticity Diagram 277
13.5 The ROB Additive Light System 279
13.6 The CMY Subtractive Colour System 282
13.7 Transformation Between the ROB and CMY Colour Spaces 285
13.8 The Colour of Objects, Polychromies, and Paintings 286
13.9 Use of Complementary Colours in Visual Arts 288
13.10 Optics of Halftone Imaging and the Neo-Impressionism 290
13.11 How to Improve the Colour Rendering of Electric Lighting 293
13.12 What Is the Colour of Solar Light? 295
References 298
Part IV CLIMATE-RELATED RISKS
14. Climate Change, Human Factor, and Risk Assessment
14.1 Part l: Basic Concepts on Climate Changes, Emission Scenarios and Potential Damage 303
14.2 Part 2: Future Scenarios and Risk Assessment 308
14.3 Part 3: Selected Impact Case Studies 313
References 336
Further Reading 340
Part V EUROPEAN STANDARDS AND FIELD SURVEYS
15. European Standards Concerning Microclimate for Cultural Heritage and Its Measurement
15.1 Introduction. International and European Standards 343
15.2 EN 15757 (2010) and the Priority of Historic Climate 343
15.3 EN 15759-1 (2011) for Heating Churches 347
15.4 EN 15759-2 (2018) for Ventilation in Historic Buildings and to Protect Collections 350
15.5 EN 16883 (2017) for Improving the Energy Performance of Historic Buildings 351
15.6 EN 15758 (2010) for Measuring Temperatures of the Air and Objects 352
15.7 EN 16242 (2012) for Measuring Humidity in the Air and Moisture Exchanges 353
15.8 EN 16682 (2017) for Measurements of Moisture Content in Materials 354
15.9 EN 15999-1 (2013) for Design of Showcases 358
References 358
16. Introduction to Field Measurements
16.1 Field Observations and Computational Fluid Dynamics 359
16.2 Planning Field Measurements 360
16.3 Traditional and Innovative Sensors 362
16.4 Weather Stations and Observations for Monument Conservation 364
16.5 Statistical Representation of Data 367
16.6 Frequency of Observation 368
16.7 Length of Observation Period 369
16.8 Response Time of a Sensor 369
16.9 Drawing Air Temperature and Other Isolines 375
References 378
Part VI MEASURING INSTRUMENTS AND THEIR DEVELOPMENT
17. Measuring Temperature
17.1 Part 1. Historical Overview: The Development of Early Thermometers and Basic Ideas 383
17 .2 Part 2. Modem Technology to Measure Air Temperature 405
17.3 Part 3. Modem Technology to Measure Artwork Surface Temperature 414
References 426
Further Reading 429
18. Measuring Air Humidity
18.1 Part 1. Historical Overview: The Development of Early Hygrometers and Basic Ideas 431
18.2 Part 2. Modem Technology to Measure Air Humidity 441
References 455
19. Measuring Time of Wetness and Moisture in Materials
19.1 Measuring the Time of Wetness 459
19.2 Measuring Moisture in Materials 463
References 479
20. Measuring Wind and Indoor Air Motions
20.1 Part 1: Historical Overview: The Development of Early Anemometers and Basic Ideas 483
20.2 Part 2: Modem Technology to Measure Wind and Air Motions 499
References 509
Further Reading 511
21. Measuring Precipitation and Windborne Drops
21.1 Part 1. Historical Overview: The Development of Early Rain Gauges and Basic Ideas 513
21.2 Part 2. Modern Technology to Measure Precipitation 520
References 532
Appendix 1: List of Fundamental Constants Met in This Book 535
Appendix 2: Summary of Key Equations to Calculate Humidity Variables 537
Appendix 3: Essential Glossary 539
Relevant Objects, Museums, Monuments, etc.
Exemplified in Figures 541
Index 547