CONTENTS
Preface XV
Acknowledgements and permissions xvii
Abbreviations xxi
Symbols xxiii
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Philosophy of tunnelling 1
1.2 Scope of this book 3
1.3 Historical context 3
1.4 The nature of the ground 6
1.5 Tunnel cross section terminology 7
1.6 Content and layout of this book 7
2 Site investigation 9
2.1 Introduction 9
2.2 Site investigation during a project 10
2.2.1 Introduction 10

2.2.2 Desk study 11
2.2.3Site reconnaissance 11
2.2.4 Ground investigation (overview) 12
2.3 Ground investigation 13
2.3.1 Introduction 13
2.3.2 Field investigations 13

2.3.2.1 Non-intrusive methods 13
2.3.2.2 Intrusive exploration 18
2.3.3 Laboratory tests 31
2.4 Ground characteristics/parameters 41
2.4.1 Influence of layering on Young's modulus 44
2.4.2 Squeezing and swelling ground 45
2.4.3 Typical ground parameters for tunnel design 46
2.4.4 Ground (rock mass) classification 49
2.4.4.1 Rock Quality Designation 49
2.4.4.2 Rock Mass Rating 53
2.4.4.3 Rock Mass Quality Rating (Q-method)
2.4.4.4 A few comments on the rock mass classification systems 58
2.5 Site investigation reports 60
2.5.1 Types of site investigation report 60
2.5.2 Key information for tunnel design 61
3 Preliminary analyses for the tunnel 64
3.1 Introduction 64
3.2 Preliminary stress pattern in the ground 64
3.3 Stability of soft ground 66

3.3.1 Stability of fine grained soils 67
3.3.2 Stability of coarse grained soils 69

3.4 The coefficient of lateral earth pressure (K0) 70
3.5 Preliminary analytical methods 73

3.5.1 Introduction 73
3.5.2 Bedded-beam spring method 74
3.5.3 Continuum method 74
3.5.4 Tunnel support resistance method 76
3.6 Preliminary numerical modelling 78
3.6.1 Introduction 78
3.6.2 Modelling the tunnel construction in 2-D 79
3.6.3 Modelling the tunnel construction in 3-D 81
3.6.4 Choice of ground and lining constitutive
models 82
4 Ground improvement techniques and lining systems 84
4.1 Introduction 84
4.2 Ground improvement and stabilization techniques 84

4.2.1 Ground freezing 85
4.2.2 Lowering of the groundwater table 89
4.2.3 Grouting 90
4.2.4 Ground reinforcement 95
4.2.5 Forepoling 98
4.2.6 Face dowels 100
4.2.7 Roof pipe umbrella 101
4.2.8 Compensation grouting 102
4.2.9 Pressurized tunnelling (compressed air) 105
4.3 Tunnel lining systems 108
4.3.1 Lining design requirements 108
4.3.2 Sprayed concrete (shotcrete) 109
4.3.3 Ribbed systems 114
4.3.4 Segmental linings 115
4.3.5 In situ concrete linings 123
4.3.6 Fire resistance of concrete linings 125
5 Tunnel construction techniques 127
5.1 Introduction 127
5.2 Open face construction without a shield 128

5.2.1 Timber heading 128
5.2.2 Open face tunnelling with alternative linings 128

5.3 Partial face boring machine (roadheader) 129
5.4 Tunnelling shields 132
5.5 Tunnel boring machines 138

5.5.1 Introduction 138
5.5.2 Tunnel boring machines in hard rock 140
5.5.2.1 Gripper tunnel boring machine 140
5.5.2.2 Shield tunnel boring machines 145
5.5.2.3 General observations for hard rock
tunnel boring machines 147
5.5.3 Tunnel boring machines in soft ground 150
5.5.3.1 Introduction 150
5.5.3.2 Slurry tunnelling machines 153
5.5.3.3 Earth pressure balance machines 158
5.5.3.4 Multi-mode tunnel boring machines 161
5.5.3.5 Choice of slurry or earth pressure balance tunnel boring machine 163
5.6 Drill and blast tunnelling 164
5.6.1 Introduction 164
5.6.2 Drilling 165
5.6.3 Charging 168
5.6.4 Stemming 169
5.6.5 Detonating 169

5.6.5.1 Detonating effect 169
5.6.5.2 Types of explosive 170
5.6.5.3 Detonators 172
5.6.5.4 Cut types 174
5.6.5.5 Explosive material requirements 180

5.6.6 Ventilation 180
5.6.7 Mucking and support 182
5.7New Austrian Tunnelling Method and sprayed
concrete lining 183
5.7.1 New Austrian Tunnelling Method 183
5.7.2 Sprayed concrete lining 187
5.7.3 LaserShell™ technique 192
5.8Cut-and-cover tunnels 193
5.8.1 Introduction 193
5.8.2 Construction methods 193
5.8.3 Design issues 195
5.8.4 Excavation support methods (shoring systems) for
the sides of the excavation 196
5.9 Immersed tube tunnels 201
5.9.1 Introduction 201
5.9.2 Stages of construction for immersed tube tunnels 203
5.9.3 Types of immersed tube tunnel 206

5.9.3.1 Steel shell 206
5.9.3.2 Concrete 206

5.9.4 Immersed tube tunnel foundations and settlements 209
5.9.5 Joints between tube elements 209
5.9.6 Analysis and design 211
5.9.7 Examples of immersed tube tunnels 213
5.10 Jacked box tunnelling 216
5.10.1 Introduction 216
5.10.2 Outline of the method and description of key components 216
5.10.3 Examples of jacked box tunnels 221

5.10.3.1 Vehicular under-bridge, Ml motorway, Jl 5A, Northamptonshire, UK 221
5.10.3.2 I-90 Highway Extension, Boston, Massachusetts, USA 226
5.11 Pipe jacking and microtunnelling 230
5.11.1 Introduction 230
5.11.2 The pipe jacking construction process 231
5.11.3 Maximum drive length for pipe jacking and microtunnelling 235
5.12 Horizontal directional drilling 235
6 Health and safety, and risk management in tunnelling 24
6.1 The health and safety hazards of tunnel construction 244
6.1.1 Introduction 244
6.1.2 Hazards in tunnelling 245
6.1.3Techniques for risk management 245
6.1.4 Legislation, accidents and ill health statistics 246
6.1.5 Role of the client,, designer and contractors 247
6.1.6 Ground risk 248
6.1.7 Excavation and lining methods 249
6.1.8 Tunnel boring machines 249
6.1.9 Tunnel transport 250
6.1.10 Tunnel atmosphere and ventilation 250
6.1.11 Explosives 251
6.1.12 Fire, flood rescue and escape 251
6.1.13 Occupational health 252
6.1.14 Welfare and first aid 253
6.1.15 Work in compressed air 253
6.1.16 Education, training and competence 254
6.1.17 Concluding remarks 255
6.2 Risk management in tunnelling projects 255
6.2.1 Introduction 255
6.2.2 Risk identification 258
6.2.3 Analyzing risks 258
6.2.4 Evaluating risks 259
6.2.5Risk monitoring and reviewing 259
7 Ground movements and monitoring 262
7.1 Ground deformation in soft ground 262
7.1.1 Surface settlement profiles 263
7.1.1.1Estimating the trough width parameter, i 266
7.1.1.2 Volume loss 268

7.1.2 Horizontal displacements 269
7.1.3 Long-term settlements 270
7.1.4 Multiple tunnels 271

7.2 Effects of tunnelling on surface and subsurface structures 271
7.2.1 Effect of tunnelling on existing tunnels, buried utilities
and piled foundations 2 72
7.2.2 Design methodology 276
7.3 Monitoring 280

7.3.1 Challenges and purpose 280
7.3.2 Trigger values 282
7.3.3 Observational method 283
7.3.4 ln-tunnel monitoring during New Austrian Tunnelling Method tunnelling operations 285

7.3.4.1 Measurements 285
7.3.4.2 General development of displacements 287
7.3.4.3 Interpretation of the measurements: displacements 289
7.3.4.4 Interpretation of the measurements: comparative observation 291
7.3.4.5 Interpretation of the measurements: deformation 293
7.3.4.6 Interpretation of the measurements: stress-intensity-index 296
7.3.4.7 Measuring frequency and duration 298
7.3.4.8. Contingency measures 298

7.3.5 Instrumentation for in-tunnel and ground monitoring 304
7.3.6 Instrumentation for monitoring existing structures 307
8 Case studies 311
8.1Eggetunnel, Germany 311
8.1.1 Project overview 311
8.1.2 Invert failure of the total cross section in the Eggetunnel 312
8.1.3 Sprayed concrete invert - its purpose and monitoring 314
8.2London Heathrow T5, UK: construction of the Piccadilly
Line Extension Junction 319
8.2.1 Project overview 319
8.2.2 The'Box' 319
8.2.3 Construction of the sprayed concrete lining tunnels 321
8.2.4 Ground conditions 321
8.2.5 The LaserShell™ method 322
8.2.6 TunnelBeamer™ 323
8.2.7 Monitoring 325

8.2.7.1 Existing Piccadilly Tunnel Eastside 325
8.2.7.2 Existing Piccadilly Tunnel Westside 325
8.3Lainzer Tunnel LT31, Vienna, Austria 330
8.3.1 Project overview 330
8.3.2 Geology 333
8.3.3 Starting construction from the shafts 333
8.3.4 Side wall drift section: excavation sequence and cross section 334
8.3.5 Monitoring of the sprayed concrete lining of the side wall drift section 339
8.3.6 Cracks in the sprayed concrete lining 339
Appendix A: Further information on rock mass classification
systems 345
A.l Rock Mass Rating 345
2 Rock Mass Quality Rating (Q) 350
A.2.1 Use of the Q-method for predicting TBM performance 354
Appendix B: Analytical calculation of a sprayed concrete
lining using the continuum method 356
1.Introduction 356
B.2 Analytical model using Ahrens et al. (1982) 357
B.3 Required equations and calculation process 358
B.4 Example for a tunnel at King's Cross Station, London 361
References and bibliography 368
Index 385