Preface xi Acknowledgements xiii Acronyms xv FUNDAMENTALS OF CIS 1 .1The nature of geographical phenomena 1 .2 Definition and concept of a GIS 2 .3 Components of a GIS 5 .4 The history of mapping and GIS 10 .5 Why GIS is needed 19 .6 Questions that a GIS system answers 20 .7 GIS and other disciplines 21 .8 Areas of GIS applications 22 .9 Critique in GIS 24 MAP LANGUAGE 27 2.1The language of maps 27 2.2 Cartography as the root of GIS 28 2.3 Geometric models of earth 29 2.4 The earth surface 33 2.5 Coordinate systems and reference 34 2.5.1Plane coordinate systems 34 2.5.1.1 Plane cartesian coordinate systems 35 2.5.1.2 Plane polar coordinate systems 36 2.5.2Global coordinate systems 36 2.5.2.1 Universal transverse mercator (UTM) 38 2.5.2.2 Military grid reference system (MGRS) 40 2.5.2.3 World geographic reference system (GEOREF) 40 2.5.3Regional/Local systems __ 41 2.5.3.1 Universal polar stereographic (UPS) 42 Geographic Information System 2.6Geodetic datum 42 2.6.1Types of geodetic datums 43 2.7Map scale and generalization 45 2.8Map projection 46 2.8.1 Classification of map projection systems 47 2.8.1.1 Perspective and non-perspective projections 48 2.8.1.2 Sequence of transformations 49 2.8.1.3 Projection properties 50 2.9Planar or azimuthal projection 52 2.9.1 Gnomonic projection 52 2.9.1.1 Transverse or equatorial case 53 2.9.1.2 Oblique case 54 2.9.2Stereographic projection 54 2.9.3Orthographic projection 54 2.9.4Nonperspective projection 55 2.9.4.1 Equidistant polar zenithal projection 55 2.9.4.2 Equal area zenithal projection 56 2.10 Cylindrical projection 56 2.10.1 Perspective cylindrical projection 57 2.10.2 Cassini projection 58 2.10.3 Gall's projection 58 2.11 Conic projection 59 2.11.1 Simple perspective conic projection 60 2.11.2 Simple conical projection with two standard parallels 60 2.11.3 Equal area conic projection with two standard parallels 61 2.11.4 Orthomorphic conic projection with two standard parallels 61 2.11.5 Equal distant conic projection with two standard parallels 61 2.11.6 Polyconic projection 61 2.11.7 International maps (IM projection) 62 2.11.8 Bonn's projection 62 2.12 Selection of a particular projection 63 MAPS AS NUMBERS: DATA MODELS AND DATA STRUCTURE 65 3.1Maps as numbers 65 3.2Abstract representations of reality 68 3.3Spatial data model 70 3.4Vector data structure - 72 3.4.1 Geometry and topology 72 3.4.2Topology 74 3.4.3Topological relationships between spatial objects 77 3.4.4Vector models 79 3.4.5Vector data format 83 3.5 Raster data structure 85 3.5.1Creating a raster 88 3.5.2Raster data format 89 3.6 The Raster-vector database debate 90 3.6.1Coordinate precision 91 3.6.2Speed of processing 91 3.6.3Mass storage 91 3.6.4Characteristics of phenomena 91 3.7 Translations between raster and vector 92 3.7.1Vector to raster conversion (Rasterization) 95 3.7.2Raster to vector conversion (Vectorization) 97 4 INPUT OF MAP DATA 99 4.1 Required data for a CIS 99 4.1.1Analog maps 100 4.1.2Aerial photography 101 4.1.3Satellite data 103 4.1.4Ground survey with GPS o 103 4.1.5Reports and publications 104 4.2 Exiting datasets 104 4.2.1Data on the networks 104 4.3 Input of geospatial data 105 4.3.1Manual devices 105 4.3.1.1 Digitizer tablet 106 4.3.2Input through keyboard 109 4.3.3Scanner 109 4.3.4Aerial photogrammetry 111 4.3.5Satellite imagery 114 4.3.6Advanced technologies for primary data acquisition 115 4.4 GPS system 117 4.4.1Components of GPS 117 4.4.2Working principles 119 4.4.3Sources of errors in GPS 120 4.4.4Geometric dilution of precision (GDOP) 121 4.4.5Differential GPS (DGPS) 121 Geographic Information System 4.4.6GPS accuracy 122 4.4.7Applications of GPS 123 4.4.8 Defining GPS requirement 123 SPATIAL DATABASE MANAGEMENT 125 5.1Overview 125 5.2Concept of spatial database 125 5.3Database management systems 126 5.4Database structures 127 5.4.1 Simple computer file structure 127 5.5Database modeling 130 5.5.1 Hierarchical model 133 5.5.2Network model 135 5.5.3Relational model 136 5.5.3.1 Basic of relational data model 137 5.5.3.2 Relational data manipulation 139 5.5.3.3 Normalization 141 5.5.4Object-oriented data model 143 5.6Data organization 144 5.6.1 Chain coding 145 5.6.2Run-length coding 145 5.6.2.1 Standard run-length coding 146 5.6.2.2 value point encoding 147 5.6.3Block coding 148 5.6.4Quadtree 149 SPATIAL ANALYSIS 151 6.1 Overview 151 6.2Measurement in CIS 152 6.2.1 Least cost path 154 6.2.2 Shape measures 154 6.3Query 156 6.3.1 Query by attributes 156 6.3.2 Spatial queries 158 6.4Attribute based operation 158 6.4.1 Reduced information content 158 6.4.2Increased information content 161 6.5Neighborhood analysis 162 6.6Connectivity analysis 165 6.6.1Proximity analysis 165 6.6.2 Network analysis 165 6.7 Overlay 170 6.7.1Raster overlay 170 6.7.2Vector overlay 172 6.8 Coverage rebuilding 174 MODELLING SURFACE 177 7.1The role of interpolation 177 7.2Spatial interpolation 178 7.2.1When is interpolation necessary 178 7.3 Methods of interpolation 179 7.3.1Point / areal interpolation 179 7.3.2Global/ local methods 179 7.3.3Exact/ approximate 179 7.3.4GraduaV abrupt 180 7.3.5Deterministic/ stochastic 180 7.4 Methods based on geometrical nearness 180 7.5 Statistical methods 183 7.5.1Interpolation by kriging 183 7.5.2Inverse distance interpolation 185 7.6 Methods using basis functions 186 7.6.1Trend surface analysis 187 7.6.2Splines 188 7.7 Artificial neural networks 190 OUTPUT 193 8.1Graphic output 193 8.2 Text output 196 8.3 Device output 196 8.4 Hardcopy output mechanism 196 8.4.1Line printers 196 8.4.2Dot matrix printers/ plotters 197 8.4.3Pen plotters 197 8.4.4Optical scanners 197 8.5 CRT (Cathode Ray Tubes) 197 REMOTE SENSING AND GIS 199 9.1Introduction 199 9.2 Remote sensing . 199 x Geographic Information System 9.3Principles 9.4Remote Sensing as a data source 9.5Integration of Remote Sensing and GIS 9.5.1 GIS in image processing 9.5.2Geographic information extraction from remote sensing 9.5.3Problems with integrating spatial data sets 9.6Software options 10 ISSUES IN GIS 10.1 Internet and GIS 1 0.2 Geographical objects with indeterminate boundaries 10.2.1 Fuzzy sets and fuzzy objects 10.2.2 Crisp sets and fuzzy sets 10.3 Legal issues 10.4 Errors in GIS 1 0.5 GIS in school education 10.6 G\S and decision support 10.8 Environmental modeling with GIS 10.9 GIS and watershed management Study Questions Glossary Bibliography Index