Preface x Acknowledgements xi Introduction xii 1 The economics of space heating plants i Nomenclature 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 The economics 3 1.3 Energy consumption 4 1.4 Estimation of indoor heat gains (Qg) 8 1.5 Standard Degree Days 10 1.6 Calculation of Standard Degree Days 12 1.7Standard Degree Days to different Base temperatures 14 1.8 Research into Standard Degree Days 18 1.9 Limitations of the SDD method of estimating annual energy consumption 18 1.10 Chapter closure 19 2 Estimating energy consumption - Continuous space heating 20 Nomenclature 20 2.1 Introduction 20 2.2 Estimating procedures for continuously heated buildings 21 2.3 Adoption of equivalent hours of operation at full load 27 2.4 Qualifying remarks 31 2.5 Chapter closure 32 3 Intermittent space heating 33 Nomenclature 33 3.1 Introduction 33 3.2 The estimation of annual energy demand 34 3.3 The estimation of annual fuel consumption for offices 35 3.4 The estimation of annual fuel costs for a school 41 3.5 Qualifying remarks 42 3.6 The estimation of annual fuel consumption for a factory 43 3.7 The estimation of annual fuel cost for a house 45 3.8 The estimation of annual fuel cost for a tempered air system 48 3.9 Reducing fossil fuel consumption in the existing building stock 48 3.10 Further qualifying remarks relating to the case studies 5O 3.11 Limitations related to Standard Degree Days 50 3.12 Chapter closure 51 4 Estimating the annual cost for the provision of hot water supply 52 Nomenclature 52 4.1 Introduction 52 4.2 Factors to be considered 53 4.3 Hot water supply requirements and boiler power 53 4.4 The annual estimate calculation process 54 4.5 Estimating annual energy consumption 55 4.6 An alternative method of estimating annual energy consumption 61 4.7 Chapter closure 63 5 Energy consumption for cooling loads 64 Nomenclature 64 5.1 Introduction 64 5.2 External heat gains 66 5.3 Factors affecting the estimation of external heat gains 67 5.4 Estimation of the indoor heat gains (Qg) 70 5.5 Annual energy consumption - A more detailed analysis 71 5.6 Free cooling 73 5.7 Chapter closure 74 6 Performance Indicators 75 Nomenclature 75 6.1 Introduction 75 6.2 Performance Indicators 76 6.3 Building benchmarks 78 6.4 Further analysis of Case study 3.578 6.5 Carbon dioxide emissions 79 6.6 Annual carbon dioxide emission benchmarks/indices (CDI) 79 6.7 Further analysis of Case studies 3,1 and 3.2 80 6.8 Chapter closure 82 7 Energy conservation strategies 83 Nomenclature 83 7.1 Intoduction 84 7.2 Energy transfer from point of extraction to point of use 84 7.3 Efficiency of space heating plants 87 7.4 Seasonal and base load demand and consumption 88 7.5 The energy conservation programme 89 7.6 The energy survey 92 7.7 The energy audit 94 7.8 Areas for energy saving 95 7.9 Heat recovery 96 7.10 Chapter closure 106 8 Cost-benefit analysis 107 Nomenclature 107 8.1 Introduction 107 8.2 Simple payback 108 8.3 Discounted cash flow and present value 109 8.4 Effects of fuel inflation (Case study 8.1) 112 8.5 Effects of general inflation and fuel inflation 113 8.6 Net present value and comparison of different schemes 113 8.7 Loans 117 8.8 Whole life costs 118 8.9 Repair or replace 120 8,10 Chapter closure 120 9 Energy audits 122 Nomenclature 122 9.1 Introduction 122 9.2 Preliminaries to an energy audit 123 of the energy audit 123 9.3 Measurement of pritnary energy consumption -124 9.4Primary energy tariffs 125 9.5 Presentation of data -.A -simple audit 125 9.6 Auditing'a primary school 128 9.7 An energy audit for a small museum 130 9.8 Auditing a mixed use building 131 9.9 Presentation of data - A more detailed audit 132 9.10 Auditing a two-bed bungalow Case study 138 9.11 Further source material 139 9.12 Chapter closure 139 10Monitoring and targeting Nomenclature 141 10.1Introduction 141 10.2Monitoring procedures 142 10.3Monitoring equipment 143 10.4Correlation and linear regression analysis 143 10.5Continuous performance monitoring using Degree Days 151 10.6Continuous performance monitoring using mean daily outdoor temperature 152 10.7Correcting fuel/energy consumption to a common time base 157 10.8Performance monitoring using cumulative sum deviation 160 10.9Chapter closure 166 11 Regulations relating to greenhouse gas emissions Nomenclature 167 11.1 Introduction 167 11.2 The Climate Change Levy 168 11.3 The Energy Technology List 170 11.4Enhanced Capital Allowances 170 11.5 The Carbon Trust 171 11.6 Carbon or carbon dioxide? 171 11.7Emissions Trading Scheme 172 11.8 Levy Exemption Certificates 173 11.9 Renewable Obligation Certificates 173 11.10 The EU Energy Performance in Buildings Directive 175 11.11 Domestic dwellings 178 11.12 Contraction and convergence 179 11.13 British Electricity Trading and Transmission Arrangements 179 11.14 'Towards susiainabie reporting 18O 11..15 Chapter closure 181 Trends in building services Nomenclature 182 12.1 Introduction 182 12.2 Sustainable development 183 12.3 Whole life costing 185 12.4 Rethinking design and installation 187 12.5 Prefabrication 188 12.6 An energy-saving product 189 12.7 Energy-saving systems 190 12.8 Sustainable systems 191. 12.9 Chapter closure 192 Appendix 1 Standard Degree Day data 193 Appendix 2 Energy conservation measures 198 Appendix 3 Preventive maintenance 202 measures - Performance condition monitoring Appendix 4 Benchmarking 205 Appendix 5Monitoring equipment211 Appendix 6Cost-benefit tables213 Appendix 7Levels and standards of artificial lighting 217 Appendix 8 Source organisations 219 Appendix 9Source journals 220 Appendix 10 Energy saving initiatives 221 Appendix 11 Renewable energy 222 Word index 223 Index of examples and case studies 224