Table of contents
1 Introduction to the Dissertation 1
1.1 Background and Context 1
1.2 Purpose statement: 4
1.2.1 Aim: 4
1.2.2 Objective 1: 4
1.2.3 Objective 2: 4
1.2.4 Objective 3: 5
1.3 Methodology 5
1.3.1 Research Conception 5
1.3.2 Data Collection 8
1.3.3 Analysis. 10
1.4 Scope and Limitations 13
1.5 Achievements 14
1.6 Overview of dissertation 15
2 Literature Review. 17
2.1 What is urban geography? 17
2.2 Sewage in the Urban Geography of Indian Cities: 18
2.2.1 Colonial Urban Geography and Sanitation in the Nineteenth Century: 18
2.2.2 The Colonial Urban Geography and Sanitary Interventions in the first half of Twentieth Century. 24
2.2.3 Sewage in the Urban Geography of Post-Independence Period. 30
2.3 Case of Allahabad. 38
2.4 Research Questions: 40
3 The Geography of Urbanisation in Allahabad. (1857-2020). 41
3.1 Introduction 41
3.2 Physical Geography and constraints for urbanisation in Allahabad. 44
3.3 The geography of urbanisation in Pre-Mutiny Allahabad: 47
3.3.1 Allahabad during the Mughal era: 47
3.3.2 Allahabad under East India Company's Rule: 49
3.4 Post-Mutiny Urban Reformulation and the City's Growth in the Second Half of the Nineteenth Century. 52
3.4.1 Achieving Sanitation through Segregation and Topography. 53
3.4.2 Achieving Security of New Civil Station: 56
3.4.3 Zone of Loyalty: 57
3.5 Growth of Allahabad in the post-mutiny era of the nineteenth century. 58
3.6 Urbanisation in the first half of the twentieth century: 62
3.7 Urbanisation in the post-independence period: 68
3.8 Conclusion: 72
4 Sewage in the Period of Post-Mutiny Urban Reformulations and Expansion of Allahabad (1858-1900) 73
4.1 Introduction to the Chapter: 73
4.2 "Sewage in the City" 74
4.2.1 Disease and Sanitary Concerns in Post-Mutiny Allahabad: 75
4.2.2 The Challenges of Urban Sanitation: 77
4.2.3 Sewage Flow and Stagnation in the Post-Mutiny Urban Geography of Allahabad: 82
4.2.4 Municipal Engagements in Sanitary Improvements: 88
4.2.5 Drainage Scheme for Allahabad. 93
4.3 ‘Sewage in the River’ 101
4.3.1 Conservancy Arrangements and Nightsoil Disposal in Post-Mutiny Allahabad: 101
4.3.2 The Rising Concern of ‘Sewage in the River’: 105
4.4 Missed Opportunities and Burgeoning Sanitary Crisis of Allahabad. .... 110
4.5 Conclusion. 117
5 Between Duality and Ambivalence: ‘Sewage in the City’ & ‘Sewage in the River’ at Allahabad (1900-1985). 119
5.1 Introduction. 119
5.2 Concerns about 'Sewage in the City': 124
5.2.1 A Brief Period of Localised Improvements in the First Decade of the Twentieth Century 124
5.2.2 Drainage Scheme for Allahabad: 1900-1940s. 128
5.2.3 Drainage Scheme for Allahabad: 1947-1980s. 138
5.3 Concerns about 'Sewage in the River': 141
5.3.1 The Sewage Disposal Choices and Failures in United Provinces: 141
5.3.2 The Sewage Farm at Allahabad: 146
5.3.3 Extension of Sewage Farm during 1947-1980s. 150
5.4 'Sewage in the City' and 'Sewage in the River' in Continuum of Sewage Management Crisis at Allahabad. 152
5.4.1 Colonial Period (1900-1940s) 152
5.4.2 Post-Independence Period (1947-1980s). 164
5.5 Sewage in the Urban Geography of Allahabad. 169
5.6 Conclusion: The continuum of Sewage Management Crisis, 1900-1980. 178
6 Sewage in the period of River Pollution (1985-2020). 181
6.1 Introduction: The Surge in Concern of 'Sewage in the River'. 181
6.2 The centrality of 'Sewage in the River' in the Ganga Action Plan (GAP): 183
6.2.1 GAP in Allahabad: 185
6.2.2 The Post-GAP Sewage Management in Allahabad under Sewerage Master Plan (SMP). 186
6.3 The present Sewage Management Crisis of Allahabad. 189
6.4 The Present Sewage Management Crisis. 196
6.4.1 Continuum of Sewage Management Crisis in Allahabad: 196
6.4.2 Manifestation of Present Sewage Management Crisis in Allahabad. 198
7 Conclusion: History of the Present and The Way Forward. 213
7.1 The Historical Construct of Present Sewage Management Crisis. 213
7.2 Present Sewage Management Crisis: Within Intended Sewage Management Intervention. 214
7.2.1 The Inherent Duality of 'Sewage in the City' and 'Sewage in the River'. 215
7.2.2 Ignored Urban Geography in Sewerage Network Layout Schemes: 218
7.3 Present Sewage Management Crisis: Beyond Intended Sewage Management Intervention. 220
7.3.1 Fiscal Conservatism and Skewed Priorities: 220
7.3.2 The Housing Crisis and Formulation of Problematic Urban Geography: 221
7.4 The Way Forward: 223
7.4.1 Sewage Management & Problematised Urban Geography: A Crisis Beyond Allahabad. 223
7.4.2 Informality and Environmental Injustices. 224
7.4.3 Perspectives for Action: 225
8 Bibliography: 229