Table of contents
Undertaking i
Certificate iii
Acknowledgments v
Abstract vii
Table of contents ix
List of Figures xiv
List of Tables 0
1 Introduction 3
1.1 What are Zero Emission Vehicles (ZEVs)? 3
1.2 What is a ZEV Mandate? 3
1.2.1 What is a Mandate? 3
1.2.2 What is a ZEV Mandate? 4
1.3 Why the need for the mandate? 5
1.3.1 Net Zero Targets 5
1.3.2 Greenhouse Gas Emissions (GHG Emissions) 5
1.3.3 Paris Agreement, 2015 5
1.3.4 Freight Sector 6
1.4 Problem Statement 8
1.5 Research Questions 8
1.6 Research Aim 8
1.7 Objectives 8
1.8 Research Methodology and Timeline 9
1.9 Scope and Limitations 9
1.9.1 Scope 9
1.9.2 Limitations 9
2 Literature Review 10
2.1 Alternate Fuels 10
2.1.1 Transition Fuels 10
2.1.2 Alternate Fuels 11
2.1.3 Renewable Fuels 11
2.1.4 Phasing out of Technologies 11
2.1.5 Alternate Fuel Cost Comparison 12
2.2 Understanding the Global Context 13
2.2.1 The UK Mandate 14
2.2.2 The Californian Mandate 18
2.2.3 China’s NEV Policy 21
2.3 Key Takeaway from the global Context 24
2.3.1 Success of the Mandate 28
2.3.2 Target Trajectory 29
2.3.3 Phase-Out strategies 29
2.4 Understanding the Indian Context 31
2.4.1 Indian EV Policy Timeline 32
2.4.2 State EV Policies 33
2.4.3 Vehicle Composition in India 34
2.5 Key Takeaways from the Indian Context 35
3 Existing Situation Analysis 36
3.1 Freight Composition in India 36
3.2 Trend in the Freight EV sector 39
3.3 State Freight Composition 40
3.4 Conclusion 41
4 Research Methodology 42
4.1 Theory of Change 42
4.2 Economies of Scale 44
4.3 Stakeholder Interviews 45
4.3.1 Consultation Methodology 47
4.3.2 Field Experts 48
4.3.3 Representatives of OEMs 48
4.4 Scenario Evaluation from Stakeholders 49
4.5 Benefits of the ZEV Mandate 50
5 Formulation of the ZEV Mandate 51
5.1 Key elements of the mandate 51
5.2 Formulation of the Mandate 52
5.2.1 ZEV Coverage 53
5.2.2 OEM Grading 53
5.2.3 Mandate Requirement 54
5.2.4 Credit Allotment 55
5.2.5 Credit Transfer and Penalty 56
6 Market Strategies for ZEVs 57
6.1 Target Formulation 58
6.2 Phasing out of ICE vehicles 61
6.3 Capacity Building as an Enabler 62
6.3.1 Supply Side Incentives 63
6.3.2 Demand Side Interventions 64
6.4 Financial Risks 66
6.4.1 Risks in Financing 66
6.4.2 Funding Mechanisms 66
6.4.3 Private Investors 67
6.4.4 Grants 67 xii
6.5 Reduction of Emissions 68
7 Conclusion 71
8 Future Scope 72
References 74
Annexure: Literature Studies 76
CAFÉ India 80
FAME India Scheme 81
Appendix 1: Key Takeaways from Research 84
Appendix 2: Existing Situation of Freight Vehicles in India 86