CONTENTS Preface Dedication A cknow/edgem ents 1 INTRODUCTION Introduction 1 Air pollution - a concern 1 Book format 4 2 AIR POLLUTION SOURCES AND TYPES 5 2.1 Introduction 5 2.2 Composition of the atmosphere 5 2.3 Air pollution sources 6 2.4 Types of pollutants and their sources 9 2.4.1 Carcinogenic pollutants 12 2.4.2 Carbon monoxide 14 2.4.3 Carbon dioxide 16 2.4.4 Lead 16 2.4.5 Nitrogen dioxide 17 2.4.6 Ozone 19 2.4.7 Particulates 22 2.4.8 Sulphur dioxide 23 2.4.9 Dioxins and furans 26 2.4.10 Other pollutants 30 2.5 Trends in air quality 32 2.5.1 Carbon monoxide 32 2.5.2 Lead 32 2.5.3 Nitrogen dioxide 33 2.5.4 Sulphur dioxide 33 2.5.5 Carbon dioxide 34 2.5.6 Ozone 35 2.6 Indoor air pollution 36 2.6.1 Smoking 41 3 EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION 43 3.1 Introduction 43 3.2 Human health 43 3.2.1 Smogs and air pollution episodes 44 3.2.2 Assessing health effects 48 3.2.3 Asthma 51 3.2.4 Health effects of specific air pollutants 51 3.3 Flora 60 3.4Fauna 62 3.5 Ecosystems 63 3.6 Materials 64 3.7Visibility (particle haze) 66 3.7.1 Visual range 67 3.8Strategic air quality issues 68 3 .8.1 Acid rain 68 3.8.2 ozone depletion 71 3.8.3 Greenhouse effect 72 4 EMISSION INVENTORIES 79 4.1Introduction 79 4.2The purpose of emission inventories 80 4.3Atmospheric emission inventory initiatives 81 4.4 Types of emission release and sources 84 4.4.1 Industrial emissions 85 4.4.2 Domestic emissions o88 4.4.3 Agricultural emissions 88 4.4.4 Motor vehicle emissions 89 4.4.5 Aircraft emissions 92 4.5Information requirements 92 4.6Examples of national emission inventories 95 4.6.1 UK national atmospheric emissions inventory 96 4.6.2 European emission inventories 97 4.6.3 Canadian national emission inventory 98 4.6.4 US national emission inventory 99 4.7 Transboundary emissions 100 4.7.1 Terrestrial 100 4.7.2 Marine 103 4.8Pollution emission trends 105 4.9Exercise 107 5 AIR POLLUTION MONITORING 109 5.1 Introduction 109 5.2 Forms of monitoring 109 5.3 Site selection 109 5.4 Monitoring strategies 1 11 5.5 Monitoring standards and accreditation 113 5.6 Monitoring methods and techniques 113 5.6.1 Methods of measurement 114 5.6.2 Measurement techniques 118 5.6.3 Particulate measurement 120 5.6.4 Carbon monoxide 126 5.6.5 Sulphur dioxide 126 5.6.6 Oxides of nitrogen 127 5.6.7 Ozone 128 5.6.8 Volatile organic compounds 128 5.6.9 Lead 129 5.7 Odour measurement 129 5.8 Other equipment 130 5.9 Monitoring networks 130 5.9.1 GEMS 130 5.9.2 National and municipal air quality monitoring networks 134 5.10 Source monitoring 140 5.10.1 Point source monitoring 140 5.10.2 Mobile sources 144 6 IMPACT PREDICTION 147 6.1 Introduction 147 6.2 Mechanisms for dispersion 147 6.2.1 Wind speed and direction 148 6.2.2 Atmospheric turbulence 150 6.2.3 Temperature inversions 153 6.2.4 Topography 153 6.2.5 Plume formation 155 6.3 Air dispersion modelling 156 6.3.1 What is a model? . 158 6.4 Model characteristics 160 6.4.1 Time and space scales 160 6.4.2 Frame of reference 160 6.4.3 Pollutants and reaction mechanisms 161 6.4.4 Treatment of turbulence 161 6.4.5 Topography 161 6.4.6 Plume additivity (treatment of multiple sources) 161 6.4.7 Model accuracy and limitations 162 6.5Data requirements 164 6.6 Air dispersion modelling procedures 165 6.7Stack height determination 165 6.8 Plume rise 168 6.9 Gaussian modelling 171 6.9.1 Extrapolating time average concentrations 174 6.10 Box models 174 6.11 Linear models 175 6.12 Physical models 175 6.13 Types of air dispersion models 176 6.14 Exercise 179 7 IMPACT SIGNIFICANCE AND LEGISLATION 183 7.1Introduction 183 7.2Impact significance 183 7.2.1 EU air quality standards 185 7.2.2 World Health Organisation air quality guidelines 188 7.2.3 National air quality standards 191 7.2.4 Derived air quality standards 193 7.3Air pollution indices 195 7.4Risk assessment 200 7.5 Nuisance 203 7.5.1 Particulates 204 7.5.2 Odour 205 7.5.3 Visibility 210 7.6 Flora 211 7.7Indoor air pollution 213 7.8Pollution episodes 213 7.9Air pollution legislation 215 7.9.1 Greenhouse gases 216 7.9.2 Ozone layer 216 7.9.3 International conventions 218 7.9.4 European Union 219 7.9.5 World Health Organisation 223 7.10 National air pollution control regimes 223 7.10.1 UK air pollution control regime 223 7.10.2 US air pollution control regime 226 7.10.3 Japanese air pollution control regime 227 7.10.4 Singaporean air pollution control regime 228 7.10.5 People's Republic of China legislative system 228 7.11 Public awareness 228 8 MITIGATION, CONTROL AND MANAGEMENT 231 8.1Introduction 231 8.2What is mitigation and control? 231 8.3Control of fugitive emissions 232 8.3.1 Fugitive dust control 232 8.3.2 Fugitive gaseous control 234 8.3.3 Visual inspections 235 8.4Techniques for the control of gaseous emissions 237 8.4.1 General abatement techniques 237 8.4.2 Control of oxides of nitrogen 244 8.4.3 Control of sulphur dioxide 244 8.4.4 Odour control 245 Control of dioxin emissions L< i Techniques for the control of participate emissions 249 8.5.1 Gravity settler 249 8.5.2 Cyclone 250 8.5.3 Fabric or bag filters 251 8.5.4 Electrostatic precipitators 251 8.5.5 Wet scrubber 253 8.5.6 Equipment selection 253 .6 Control of emissions from agricultural practices 256 .7 Flaring 256 .8 Control of emissions from motor vehicles 257 .9 Cost effectiveness 259 .10Air quality management 261 8.10.1 AQM process 263 8.10.2 Air quality management in the UK 264 8.10.3 Designation of air quality management areas 265 8.10.4 Air quality action plans 266 9 SITE INSPECTION AND PROJECT MANAGEMENT 269 9.1 Introduction 269 9.2 Process inspection 269 9.2.1 Presentation to management 269 9.2.2 Orientation tour 270 9.2.3 Techniques 270 9.2.4 Verification techniques 273 9.2.5 Inspection findings 273 9.2.6 Close out meeting 273 9.3 Project management 274 9.3.1 Report writing ' 276 9.3.2 Financial control 277 10 CASE STUDIES 279 10.1 Introduction 279 10.2 Case Study 1 - Screening air quality monitoring study 280 10.3 Case Study 2 - Indoor air quality health assessment 282 10.4 Case Study 3 - Emission inventory 283 10.5 Case Study 4 - Baseline air quality monitoring study 289 10.5.1 Sulphur dioxide and smoke 289 10.5.2 Nitrogen dioxide 291 10.5.3 Monitoring 294 10.6 Case Study 5 - Air dispersion modelling study 294 10.7 Case Study 6 - Quantitative health risk assessment 295 10.8 Case Study 7 - Air quality management 299 10.8.1 Screening study 306 xii Air Quality Assessment and Management - A Practical Guide 10.8.2 Long-term calculations 309 10.8.3 Areas of expected exceedences of air quality objectives 3 11 10.9 Case Study 8 - Emission control 311 10.10 Case Study 9 - Spireslack open cast coal site 312 10.10.1 Method of assessment 313 10.10.2 Baseline air quality and meteorological conditions 313 10.10.3 The proposed development 3 15 10.10.4 Potential emissions 316 10.10.5 Mitigation measures 319 10.10.6 Environmental consequences 319 10.11Case Study 10 - Power station air dispersion modelling study 320 10.11.1 Meteorological data 320 10.11.2 Modelling parameters 322 10.11.3 Modelling results 322 10.11.4 Assessment of predicted concentrations 323 10.11.5 Comparison of predicted deposition levels with critical 324 load levels 10.11.6 Environmental consequences 324 10.12Case Study 11 - Widening of the Tolo/Fanling highway 324 between the Island House Interchange and Fanling (Hong Kong), People's Republic of China 10.12.1 Description of study area 325 10.12.2 Construction phase air quality impacts 329 10.12.3 Operational phase air quality impacts 330 10.12.4 Environmental consequences 332 10.13Case Study 12 - Emission inventory of VOCs 332 10.14Case Study 13 - Assessment of air quality data 334 10.15Case Study 14 - A comparison of model predictions and 337 baseline monitoring data Epilogue 341 Appendix 343 AITerminology 343 A2Pollutants 346 A3Units 349 A4Annotations 350 ASUseful contact details 352 A.5.1 National environmental agencies 352 A. 5.2 International institutions 353 A6Conversion tables 353 References 357 Country index 377 Subject index 3 79