CONTENTS
Preface to the Second Edition vii
Preface to the First Edition ix
1. Introduction 1-31
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Environmental Chemistry, 1
1.3 Environmental Chemical Analysis 2
1.4 Impact of Man on Environment 3
1.5 Interaction with Various Spheres of Environment 5
1.6 Ecology and Environment 5
1.7 Classification of Environmental Pollution 6
1.8 Air Pollution 7
1.9 Water Pollution 13
1.10 Industrial Waste Water 16
1.11 Pollution due to Sewage 18
1.12 Solid Waste, Hazardous Waste and Biomedical Waste 19
1.13 Other Kinds of Pollution 20
1.14 Conclusion 29
2. Environmental Analysis 32-40
2.1 Introduction 32
2.2 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) 32
2.3 Criteria of Selecting a Method of Analysis 32
2.4 Errors in Analysis 33
2.5 Statistical Analysis 33
2.6 Sampling 34
2.7 Dissolution of the Sample 35
2.8 Elimination of Interferences 35
2.9 The Quantitative Analysis 37
2.10 Completion of Analysis 37
2.11 Environmental Legislation 38
2.12 ConClusion 39
3. Modern Methods of Analysis 41-70
3.1 Introduction 41
3.2 Separation Methods 42
3.3 Chromatographic Methods 42
3.4 Partition Chromatography 43
3.5 Gas Chromatographic Separations 44
3.6 Gas Chromatograph-Mass Spectrometry 44
3.7 High Performance Liquid Chromatography 45
3.8 Ion Exchange Chromatography 47
3.9 Ion Chromatography 48
3.10 Solvent Extraction Method 49
3.11 Classical Methods of Analysis 51
3.12 The Classification of Spectroscopy Methods 52
3.13 Molecular Absorption Spectrophotoscopic Methods 53
3.14 Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy Method 57
3.15 Atomic Emission Spectroscopy 61
3.16 Molecular Luminescence Method 63
3.17 Electroanalytical Techniques 65
3.18 Radioanalytical Methods 67
3.19 Ring Oven Technique 68
3.20 Conclusion 69
4. Statistical Methods in Environment 71-82
4.1 Introduction 71
4.2 Various Types of Deviations 71
4.3 Criteria for Rejection of Results as well as What is Median Value and Range? 72
4.4 Significance of Test, Student 'T' Test and 'F' Test 73
4.5 Regression Analysis and Anova 74
4.6 Confidence Limit 76
4.7 Graphic Representation and Probability of Distributions 80
4.8 Accuracy, Reproducibility 81
4.9 Method of Least Squares 81
4.10 Conclusion 82
5. Environmental Toxicology 83-122
5.1 Introduction 83
5.2 Principles of Toxicology and Standards 83
5.3 Types of Toxic Pollutants 87
5.4 Common Toxic Manifestations 88
5.5 The Biological Sampling 89
5.6 Threshold Limiting Value (TLV) 91
5.7 Toxic Metal Pollutants and Their Analysis 91
5.8 Toxic Gas and Nonmetal Pollutants 103
5.9 Organometallic Compounds 104
5.10 Toxic Inorganic Compounds 104
5.11 Toxic Organic Compounds and Pesticides 107
5.12 Environmental Carcinogens 112
5.13 Cancer 116
5.14 Toxic Minerals and Dust 120
5.15 Conclusion 120
6. Environmental Chemistry of Common
Toxic Metals 123-135
6.1 Lead, Cadmium, Arsenic and Mercury and Environmental Hazards 123
6.2 Metals in Environment 123
6.3 Toxic Metals and Human Health 125
6.4 Speciation of Metal Pollutants 127
6.5 Arsenic in Environment 128
6.6 Lead in Environment 130
6.7 Cadmium in Environment 131
6.8 Mercury in Environment 132
6.9 Monitoring and Control Measures 134
6.10 Conclusion 134
7. Air Pollution Analysis 136-182
7.1 Introduction 136
7.2 History 138
7.3 Composition of Atmosphere 141
7.4 Effects of Air Pollution 144
7.5 Global Effects of Pollution 149
7.6 Sources of Pollution 155
7.7 Natural Sources 158
7.8 Mobile Sources 159
7.9 Autoexhaust Emission-Characterisation and Analysis 160
7.10 Working of Engine 161
7.11 Characteristics of Emission 163
7.12 Ambient Air Quality Measurement 165
7.13 Sampling of Gaseous Pollutants 169
7.14 Analysis of the Gaseous Pollutants 171
7.15 Sulphur Dioxide Analysis 172
7.16 Analysis of Sulphurated Hydrogen 173
7.17 Analysis of Oxides of Nitrogen 174
7.18 Analysis of Oxides of Carbon 176
7.19 The Analysis of Ozone from the Atmosphere 177
7.20 Analysis of Ammonia from Atmosphere 178
7.21 Organic Air Pollutants 179
7.22 Conclusion 181
8. Air Pollution and Meteorology 183-225
8.1 Introduction 183
8.2 Meteorological Parameters 185
8.3 Monitoring and Analysis 194
8.4 Monitoring of Gaseous Pollutants 199
8.5 Monitoring Oxides of Carbon 206
8.6 Monitoring of Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM) 208
8.7 Monitoring of Ammonia 212
8.8 Monitoring of Ozone 212
8.9 •Monitoring of Metal Pollutants at Trace Level 213
8.10 ' Ambient and Stack Emission Monitoring 215
8.11 Control of Autoexhaust Emission 218
8.12 Control of Air Pollution in Stacks 219
8.13 Future Developments in Monitoring 223
8.14 Conclusion 223
9. Water Pollution 226-266
9.1 Introduction 226
9.2 Physical Examination of Water, Chemical Characteristics and Biological Studies 227
9.3 Physical Examination of Water 228
9.4 Chemical Characterisation of Water 235
9.5 Minor Components of Water 240
9.6 Important Trace Elements in Water 247
9.7 Biological Investigation of Water 250
9.8 Microbiological Examination of Water 254
9.9 Water Pollution and Diseases 257
9.10 Water Borne Diseases 259
9.11 Conclusion 264
10. Water 'freatment 267-299
10.1 Introduction 267
10.2 Important Steps in Water Treatment 267
10.3 Filtration 271
10.4 Disinfection 272
10.5 Removal of Iron and Manganese 276
10.6 Softening of Water or Removal of Hardness 277
10.7 The Membrane Separation and Reverse Osmosis 281
10.8 Removal of Colour 281
10.9 Corrosion Prevention 282
10.10 Taste and Odour Removal 283
10.11 Fluoridation 284
10.12 Treatment of Water for Specific Purpose 285
10.13 Organic Compounds Characterisation 286
10.14 Removal of Organic Compounds from Water 287
10.15 Biological Activated Carbon for Mitigation of Growth 288
10.16 Analysis of Organic Pollrltants from Water 289
10.17 Frequency of Analysis 290
10.18 Water Quality Monitoring Ins ments 293
10.19 Type of Water Quality Instruments' 294
10.20 Perspective Planning for Future 297
10.21 Conclusion 297
11. Waste Water 300-333
11.1 Introduction 300
11.2 Effluent Treatment and Legislation 301
11.3 Characteristic of Waste Water 302
11.4 Treatment Processes for Waste Water 310
11.5 Characterisation of Waste Water 314
11.6 Physical Methods for Characterisation of Waste Water 316
11.7 Analysis of Organic Pollutants 319
11.8 Specific Analysis of Organic Pollutants 323
11.9 Analysis of Metal Pollutants from Waste Water 324
11.10 Analysis of Non-metals and Gases 329
11.11 Automation in Effluent Analysis 330
11.12 Conclusion 331
12. Recycling and Reuse of Waste Water 334-345
12.1 Introduction 334
12.2 Charactristics of Waste Water 335
12.3 Treatment of Waste Water for Reuse 337
12.4 Recycle and Reuse of Treated Waste Water 339
12.5 Health Guidelines before Reuse of Waste Water 341
12.6 Recycled Water-Use in Metropolitan Cities 343
12.7 Conclusion 344
13. Sewage 346-367
13.1 Introduction 346
13.2 Objective and Methods of Treatment 346
13.3 What is Domestic Effluent or Sewage 346
13.4 Treatment of Sewage 348
13.5 Primary Treatment of Sewage 349
13.6 Chemical Treatment of Sewage 349
13.7 Biological Treatment 350
13.8 Tertiary Treatment of Sewage 356
13.9 Disposal of Sewage and Sludge 358
13.10 Characterisation of Sewage 359
13.11 Analysis of Sewage 360
13.12 Analysis of Oxygen in Various State 361
13.13 Biological Analysis 366
13.14 Conclusion 366
14. Land Pollution and Pesticides 368-401
14.1 Introduction 368
14.2 Environmental Chemistry of Soil 368
14.3 Irrigation of Soil by Waste Water 370
14.4 Agricultural Pollution and Health 373
14.5 Role of Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium in the Soil 374
14.6 Micronutrients in Soil 374
14.7 Quantitative Analysis of Micronutrients 377
14.8 Characterisation of Soil 378
14.9 Trace Element in Soil Analysis 380
14.10 Environmental Pesticides 382
14.11 Classification of Pesticides 384
14.12 Dilemma of DDT 387
14.13 All about Polychlorinated Bisphenol (PCB) 388
14.14 Degradation of Pesticides in Water 392
14.15 Effects of Some Pesticides on Health 394
14.16 Pesticide Agriculture and Pollution 395
14. 17 Analysis of Pesticides 397
14.18 Characterisation of Pesticides by Specific Methods 398
14.19 Polarographic Analysis 400
14.20 Spectrophotometric Analysis 400
14.21 Conclusion 400
15. Solid Waste 402-411
15.1 Introduction 402
15.2 Adverse Effects on Health 402
15.3 Source of Solid Waste 403
15.4 Characteristics of Solid Waste 406
15.5 Transportation of Solid Waste 407
15.6 Processing of Solid Waste 408
15.7 Physical Treatment of Waste 408
15.8 Chemical Treatment of Waste 408
15.9 Biological Treatment of Solid Waste 409
15.10 Recycling of Waste 409
15.11 Disposal of Solid Waste by Landfilling 410
15.12 Control of Liberated Gases and Leachates 410
15.13 Conclusion 410
16. Hazardous Waste 412-423
16.1 Introduction 412
16.2 Definition of Hazardous Waste 412
16.3 Characteristics of Hazardous Waste 414
16.4 Source of Hazardous Waste 415
16.5 Analysis of Hazardous Waste 415
16.6 Transportation of Hazardous Waste 418
16.7 Treatment of Hazardous Waste 420
16.8 Disposal of Hazardous Waste 421
16.9 Conclusion 422
17. Biomedical Waste 424-431
17.1 Introduction 424
17.2 Characterisation of Biomedical Waste 424
17.3 Transportation of Biomedical Waste 425
17.4 Treatment of Biomedical Waste 426
17.5 Disinfection of Medical Waste 426
17.6 Incineration of Infectious Waste 428
17.7 Other Methods of Treatment 429
17.8 Disposal of Treated Medical Waste 429
17.9 Waste Minimisation 429
17.10 Medical Waste of Unusual Type 430
17.11 Occupational Safety 430
17.12 Conclusion 430
18. Biomonitoring of an Environment 432-438
18.1 Introduction 432
18.2 Biomonitoring by Animals 435
18.3 Bioindication with Biochemical Techniques 436
18.4 Biomonitoring with Microbes 436
18.5 Conclusion 437
19. Environment and Noise 439-464
19.1 Introduction 439
19.2 What is Noise? 442
19.3 What is Difference between Sound and Noise? 443
19.4 Noise and Vibrations 445
19.5 Sources of Noise Pollution 446
19.6 Noise and Health 450
19.7 Noise Level Measurement 453
19.8 Noise by Transportation 455
19.9 Sonic Boom 456
19.10 Impulsive Noise 457
19.11 Anechoic Chamber and Reverberating Sound 459
19.12 Noise Topographs 459
19.13 Control of Noise 461
19.14 Case Studies 462
19.15 Conclusion 463
20. Odour and Environment 465-480
20.1 Introduction 465
20.2 Source of Odour 466
20.3 Sampling of Odour 466
20.4 Measurement of Odour 468
20.5 Odour Determination in Water 470
20.6 Judgement of Odour Measurement 473
20.7 Odour-Nitrogen and Sulpijur Cycle in Nature 474
20.8 Chemical Constitution and Odour 475
20.9 Control of Odour 476
20.10 Conclusion 479
21. Thermal Pollution 481-490
21.1 Introduction 481
21.2 Source of Thermal Pollution 481
21.3 Effects of Discharge of Heat on Environment 483
21.4 Side Effects of Thermal Pollution 484
21.5 Control of Thermal Pollution 484
21.6 Prevention of Thermal Pollution 485
21.7 Measurement of Thermal Pollution 485
21.8 Impact of Heat on Living Organisms 486
21.9 Thermal Streams, Impingement and Applications 487
21.10 Thermal Power Plants 488
21.11 Flyash as the Environmental Pollutant 489
21.12 Conclusion 489
22. Radioactive Waste and Environment 491-509
22.1 Introduction 491
22.2 Effects of Ionising Radiation on Life 491
22.3 Source of Radiation 492
22.4 Radiation Standards 494
22.5 Nuclear Energy 494
22.6 Effect of Nuclear Fuel Cycle on Environment 495
22.7 Monitoring of Radiation 496
22.8 Characterisation of Radioactive Waste 498
22.9 Storage and Disposal of Radioactive Waste 500
22.10 Hazards of Radioactive Waste and Management 503
22.11 Classical Methods for Management of Waste 504
22.12 Successful Programme of Disposal 504
22.13 Management and Human Problem of Intrusion 505
22.14 Waste Management Programme in World 506
22.15 Conclusion 508
23. Energy and Environment 510-516
23.1 Introduction 510
23.2 Source of Energy and Its Use 510
23.3 The Regulations Pertaining to Energy 510
23.4 Management of Energy in Future 511
23.5 Alternative Source of Energy 511
23.6 Nuclear Energy 512
23.7 Radioactive Waste and Its Control 515
23.8 Fossil Fuels and Environment 515
23.9 Conclusion 516
24. Population and Environment 517-523
24.1 Introduction 517
24.2 Problems of, Population on Environment 519
24.3 Population of the Developing Countries and Environment 520
24.4 Population in Urban World and Environment 521
24.5 Environmental Advantage of Urban Setting 522
24.6 Monitoring and Control of Population 522
24.7 Conclusion 523
25. Environmental Impact Assessment 524-532
25.1 Introduction 524
25.2 What is EIA? 524
25.3 EIA Under National Environmental Policy Act 525
25.4 Myth about EIA 526
25.5 EIA in Action 526
25.6 Problems in EIA Formulation 527
25.7 Cost Benefit Analysis of EIA 527
25.8 Implementation of EIA 528
25.9 Case Studies No. 1Water Quality Impact Analysis Dam Project 528
25.10 Case Studies No.2: Skyscrapser Structures Construction in Big Cities 529
25.11 Case Studies No.3: Super Express Highways Construction 529
25.12 Case Studies No. 4: Impact of Nuclear Power Plant 530
25.13 Conclusion 531
26. Environmental Modelling 533-541
26.1 Introduction 533
26.2 Purpose of Modelling 533
26.3 Problems in Modelling 534
26.4 Simulation Modelling and System Analysis 535
26.5 Environmental Simulation Modelling 535
26.6 Air Pollution Control Models 536
26.7 Modelling for Assessment of Water Quality 537
26.8 Water Resource Management Model 538
26.9 Solid Waste Generation Model 538
26.10 Experience in Modelling Abroad 538
26.11 Scope for Improvement 539
26.12 Conclusion 540
Appendices 542-544
Index 545-563