Table of Contents
Foreword xiii
Introduction and Overview xv
Chapter 1 History and aim 1
1.1 Brief history of product semantics. 1
1.2 Trajectory of artificiality5
1.2.1 Products6
1.2.2 Goods, services, and identities 7
1.2.3 Interfaces 8
1.2.4 Multiuser systems and networks 9
1.2.5 Projects 10
1.2.6 Discourses 11
1.3 The changing environment of design 13
1.3.1 Society.13
1.3.2 Technology 15
1.3.3 Manufacture 16
1.3.4 Computer aided design (CAD) 17
1.3.5 Design management 18
1.3.6 Market research 19
1.3.7 Philosophy's linguistic turn 20
1.4 Redesigning design (discourse) 23
1.4.1 Discourse 23
1.4.2 Design 25
1.4.3 Design discourse 32
Chapter 2 Basic concepts of human-centered design 39
2.1 Predecessors 40
2.2 The axiomaticity of meaning 47
2.3 Sense, meaning, and context 50
2.3.1 Sense 50
2.3.2 Meaning 52
2.3.3 Context 59
2.4 Stakeholders in design 63
2.5 Second-order understanding 65
2.6 Ethics in a design culture 70
Chapter 3 Meaning of artifacts in use 77
3.1 Interfaces 78
3.2 Disruptions and usability 84
3.3 Recognition91
3.3.1 Categories91
3.3.2 Visual metaphors95
3.3.3 Attractiveness 102
3.4 Explorations 104
3.4.1 User conceptual models 105
3.4.2 Constraints 108
3.4.3 Affordances Ill
3.4.4 Metonyms 114
3.4.5 Informatives 117
3.4.6 Semantic layers 129
3.5 Reliance.132
3.5.1 Scenarios 133
3.5.2 Intrinsic motivation 136
3.6 Principles for designing usability 140
3.6.1 Human-centeredness 141
3.6.2 Meaningful interfaces 141
3.6.3 Second-order understanding 141
3.6.4 Affordances 142
3.6.5 Constraints 142
3.6.6 Feedback 142
3.6.7 Coherence .142
3.6.8 Learnability 143
3.6.9 Multisensory redundancy 143
3.6.10 Variability — diversity 144
3.6.11 Robustness 144
3.6.12 Delegation of design 145
Chapter 4 Meaning of artifacts in language 147
4.1 Language 150
4.2 Categories 152
4.3 Characters 155
4.4 Identities. 162
4.5 Verbal metaphors 166
4.6 Narratives 169
4.7 Culture 175
Chapter 5 Meaning in the lives of artifacts177
5.1 Life cycles 179
5.2 Stakeholder networks 180
5.3 Projects 183
5.4 Genetic meanings 184
5.5 Critical sizes of supportive communities 187
5.6 Whole life cycle accounting 189
Chapter 6 Meaning in an ecology of artifacts 193
6.1 Ecology 193
6.2 Ecology of artifacts 194
6.3 Ecological meanings 198
6.4 Technological cooperatives202
6.5 Mythology203
Chapter 7 Design methods, research, and a science for design207
7.1 Anew science for design.209
7.2 Methods for creating spaces of possible futures 213
7.2.1 Brainstorming 213
7.2.2 Reframing214
7.2.3 Combinatorics 217
7.3 Methods for inquiring into stakeholders' concepts and
motivations 221
7.3.1 Narratives of ideal futures222
7.3.2 Surveys and structured interviews223
7.3.3 Unstructured interview223
7.3.4 Focus groups224
7.3.5 Observational methods225
7.3.6 Protocol analysis226
7.3.7 Ethnography226
7.3.8 Triangulation of methods227
7.3.9 Stakeholder participation in the design process228
7.4 Human-centered design methods230
7.4.1 (Re)designing the characters of artifacts232
7.4.2 Designing artifacts that are informative (expressive)
of their workings240
7.4.3 Designing original artifacts, guided by narratives and
metaphors 245
7.4.4 Designing human-centered design strategies 254
7.4.5 Dialogical ways to design258
7.5 Validating semantic claims260
7.6 Advancing design discourse 267
7.6.1 Postdesign research269
7.6.2 Design literature269
7.6.3 Institutionalizations270
7.6.4 Self-reflection270
Chapter 8 Distantiations 273
8.1 Semiotics273
8.2 Cognitivism278
8.3 Ergonomics279
8.4 Aesthetics283
8.5 Functionalism 285
8.6 Marketing288
8.7 TextuaUsm291
Chapter 9 Roots in the Ulm School of Design? 297
9.1 Bill's functionalism298
9.2 Bense's information philosophy303
9.3 Maldonado's semiotics305
9.4 Chernyshevsky's political economy of aesthetics 308
9.5 Rittel's methodology 310
9.6 Barriers to considerations of meaning and some exceptions313
References 323
Credits 335
Index. 337
About the Author. .349