Preface vii
Acknowledgements ix
Summary of Contents xi
Table of Cases xxi
1. INTRODUCTION
A. Environmental Regulation in the 1990s: An Overview 1
B. The Nature of Ecosystems 4
C. Population Growth and Economic Incentives:
Two Causes of Environmental Disruption 8
D. Common Property and Ecosystem Services 12
E. Courts and the Environment. 21
2. ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY IN INDIA 23
A. Readings from Ancient Indian Law 24
B. Readings on Forest Policy and Legislation 25
C Early Environmental Legislation 30
D. Readings on India's Environmental Policy in the 1970s 31
E. Policy Since the Mid-1980s 35
F. Liberalization and Economic Approaches 37
3. CONSTITUTIONAL AND LEGISLATIVE PROVISIONS 40
A. Constitutional Provisions and the Environment 41
I. Fundamental Norms 41
II. Division of Legislative Authority 42
HI. The Forty-Second Amendment Act 44
IV. The Directive Principles of State Policy 45
V. Article 253 and Environmental Legislation 46
VI. Federalism: Some Issues 47
B. Environmental Protection and Fundamental Rights 49
I. The Right to a Wholesome Environment 49
II. The Right to Livelihood 51
III. The Right to Equality 53
IV. Freedom to Trade Vis-a-Vis Environmental Protection 54
C. Digest of Environmental Legislation 58
Interpretation of Environmental Statute 59
The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution)
Act of 1981 60
The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution)
Act of 1974 60
The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution)
Cess Act of 1977 61
The Wild Life (Protection) Act of 1972 61
The Public Liability Insurance Act of 1991 62
The National Environment Tribunal Act of 1995 62
The National Environment Appellate Authority
Act of 1997 63
The Mines and Minerals (Regulation and
Development) Act of 1957 63
The Indian Forest Act of 1927 63
The Forest (Conservation) Act of 1980 64
The Insecticides Act of 1968 64
The Atomic Energy Act of 1962 65
The Factories Act of 1948 65
D. The Environment (Protection) Act of 1986 66
I. The Scope of the Act 66
II. Delegated Legislation 68
III. Sections 3 and 5 of the EPA 73
IV. Violations and Penalties under the Act 81
V Enforcement of the Act 82
VI. The National Environment Appellate
Authority Act of 1997 85
4. JUDICIAL REMEDIES AND PROCEDURES 87
A. Tort Law 88
I. Damages-and Injunction 88
II. Nuisance, Negligence, Strict Liability and
Absolute Liability 91
B. Public Nuisance 112
C. The Writ Jurisdiction 122
I. Source of the Writ Jurisdiction . 122
II. Writs of Mandamus, Prohibition and Certiorari 123
HI. Limitations on the Writ Jurisdiction 127
IV. Articles 32 and 226 129
V. Judicial Review and Special Considerations 130
D. Statutory Remedies 132
E. Public Interest Litigation. 133
I. Expanded Standing and the Emergence of PIL in India 134
II. Locus Standi Today: Scope and Restrictions 139
III. The Relaxation of Procedures 141
IV. The New Challenges: Facts, Expertise and Supervision. 143
V. Directions and Relief . 145
F. Class Actions 153
I. Order 1 Rule 8 154
II. Class Actions and the Environment 155
III. Class Suits and PIL Writs 156
G. Freedom of Information and the Right to Know 157
I. Jasanoff; The Bhopal Disaster and the ^ight to Know 158
II. Executive Misuse of the Official Secrets Act 160
III. Judicial Recognition of the Right to Know 161
IV. Judicial Developments 162
V. Environmental Laws and Access to Official Information 165
5. WATER POLLUTION CONTROL 167
A. Water Pollution: Scope of the Problem 172
B. The Water Act 176
I. Framework of the Water Act 176
II. Scope of Judicial Relief Under the Water Act 183
IIL Constitutional Challenges to Section 33 Restraining Orders 187
IV Criminal Liability. 189
V. The Water Cess Act 197
12. REGULATION OF HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES 514
A. Legislative Framework 514
B. The Shriram Gas Leak Case 520
C. Pesticide and Radiation Cases 542
13. THE BHOPAL GAS LEAK CASE 547
A. Introduction 547
B. Who was to Blame? 550
C. The Forum 552
D. The Government 554
E. The Settlement 556
F. The Compensation Machinery 560
14. TRANSNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL POLICIES 563
A. The Indus River Basin 564
B. The Ganga-Brahmaputra River Basin System 571
15. INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL LAW AND
GLOBAL ISSUES 579
A. Introduction 579
B. India's International Obligations 581
C. Established Norms of International Environmental Law 583
D. Conflicts Between the Environment and Free Trade 590
E. Human Rights, Indigenous People and the Environment 591
F. Environmental Justice 593
I. Environmental Poverty Law 593
II. North-South Tensions 593
G. Air Pollution and Protection of the Atmosphere 594
H. Protecting Endangered Species 598
I. Protecting the Global Commons 600
J. Protecting Forest Ecosystems 601
APPENDICES
A. The Air Act 607
B. The Water Act 635
C. The Environment Act 672
D. The Environment Rules 683
E. Coastal Regulations 788
F. Environmental Impact Assessment Regulations 800
G. The Forest (Conservation) Act 813
H. The Noise Rules 816
Index 820