Contents
List of figures List of tables Preface
1 Research: a way of thinking
Research: an integral part of your practice
Research: a way to gather evidence for your practice
Applications of research
Research: what does it mean?
The research process: characteristics and requirements
Types of research
Types of research: application perspective Types of research: objectives perspective Types of research: mode of enquiry perspective
Paradigms of research
Summary
2 The research process: a quick glance
The research process: an eight-step model Phase I: deciding what to research
Step I: formulating a research problem Phase II: planning a research study
Step II: conceptualising a research design
Step III: constructing an instrument for data collection
Step IV: selecting a sample
Step V: writing a research proposal Phase III: conducting a research study
Step VI: collecting data
Step VII: processing and displaying data
Step VIII: writing a research report Summary

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY STEP I FORMULATING A RESEARCH PROBLEM 29
3 Reviewing the literature 31
The place of the literature review in research 31 Bringing clarity and focus to your research problem 32
Improving your research methodology 32 Broadening your knowledge base in your research area 33
Enabling you to contextualise your findings 33
How to review the literature 33
Searching for the existing literature 34
Reviewing the selected literature 37
Developing a theoretical framework 38
Developing a conceptual framework 40
Writing about the literature reviewed 40
Summary 42
4 Formulating a research problem 43
The research problem 44
The importance of formulating a research problem 44
Sources of research problems 45
Considerations in selecting a research problem 47
Steps in formulating a research problem 48
TJie formulation of research objectives 50
The study population 55
Establishing operational definitions 55
Formulating a research problem in qualitative research 57
Summary 58
5 Identifying variables 61
Wliat is a variable? 62
The difference between a concept and a variable 63
Converting concepts into variables 64
Types of variable 66
From the viewpoint of causal relationship 66
From the viewpoint of the study design 71
From the viewpoint of the unit of measurement 72
Types of measurement scale 73
The nominal or classificatory scale 76
The ordinal or ranking scale 76
The interval scale 77
The ratio scale 77
Summary 78
6 Constructing hypotheses tiw^s* •>•.;-:\i?*n*?$ 81
The definition of a hypothesis 81
The functions of a hypothesis 83
The testing of a hypothesis 83
The characteristics of a hypothesis 'HTX^' >•--••,.. g^
Type5 of hypothesis 85
Errors in testing a hypothesis 87
Hypotheses in qualitative research 88
Summary 89
STEP II CONCEPTUALISING A RESEARCH DESIGN 91
7 The research design 93
What is a research design? 94
The functions of a research design , " 94
The theory of causality and the research design '• !i 95
Summary 101
.
Selecting a study design 103
Differences between quantitative and qualitative study designs 103
Study designs in quantitative research 105
Study designs based on the number of contacts 105
Study designs based on the reference period 111 Study designs based on the nature of the investigation 113
Other designs commonly used in quantitative research 122
The cross-over comparative experimental design 123
The replicated cross-sectional design 124
Trend studies 124
Cohort studies 125
Panel studies 125
Blind studies 126
Double-blind studies 126
Study designs in qualitative research 126
Case study 126
Oral history 127
Focus groups/group interviews 127
Participant observation 128
Holistic research 129
Community discussion forums 129
Reflective journal log 130
Other commonly used philosophy-guided designs 130
Action research 131
x RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Feminist research 132
Participatory and collaborative research enquiry 132
Summary 133
STEP III CONSTRUCTING AN INSTRUMENT FOR
DATA COLLECTION 135
9 Selecting a method of data collection 137
Differences in the methods of data collection in quantitative and
qualitative research 138
Major approaches to information gathering 138
Collecting data using primary sources 140
Observation 140
The interview 144
The questionnaire 145 Constructing a research instrument in quantitative research 156
Asking personal and sensitive questions 156
The order of questions 158
Pre-testing a research instrument 158
Prerequisites for data collection 159
Methods of data collection in qualitative research 159 Constructing a research instrument in qualitative research 162
Collecting data using secondary sources 163
Problems with using data from secondary sources 163
Summary 164
10 Collecting data using attitudinal scales 167
Measurement of attitudes in quantitative and qualitative research 167
Attitudinal scales in quantitative research 168
Functions of attitudinal scales 168
Difficulties in developing an attitudinal scale 169
Types of attitudinal scale 170
The summated rating or Likert scale 170
The equal-appearing interval orThurstone scale 174
The cumulative or Guttman scale 175
Attitudinal scales and measurement scales 175
Attitudes and qualitative research 175
Summary 175
11 Establishing the validity and reliability of a research instrument 177
The concept of validity 178
Types of validity in quantitative research 179
Face and content validity 179
Concurrent and predictive validity 180
Construct validity 180
Factors affecting the reliability of a research instrument 182
Methods of determining the reliability of an instrument in quantitative research 182
External consistency procedures 182
Internal consistency procedures 183
Validity and reliability in qualitative research 184
Summary 186
STEP IV SELECTING A SAMPLE 189
12 Selecting a sample 191
The differences between sampling in quantitative and qualitative research 192
Sampling in quantitative research 193
The concept of sampling nofiwinoiiJi. 193
Sampling terminology 194
Principles of sampling 194
Factors affecting the inferences drawn from a sample 197
Aims in selecting a sample 197
Types of sampling 197
Non-random/non-probability sampling designs in ?t-
quantitative research 206
Systematic sampling design: a 'mixed' design 208
The calculation of sample size 209
Sampling in qualitative research 212
The concept of saturation point in qualitative research 213
Summary 213
STEP V WRITING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL 215
13 How to write a research proposal 217
The research proposal in quantitative and qualitative research 217
Contents of a research proposal 218
Preamble/introduction 220
The problem 222
Objectives of the study 224
Hypotheses to be tested 226
Study design 227
The setting 230
Measurement procedures 230
Ethical issues 231
Sampling 231
Analysis of data 232
Structure of the report 235
Problems and limitations 236
& RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Appendix 237
Work schedule 2237
Summary 237
STEP VI COLLECTING DATA 239
Considering ethical issues in data collection 241
Ethical issues to consider concerning research participants 244 Collecting information ' 244
Seeking consent i1r .,,., i; 244 Providing incentives , 245
Seeking sensitive information 245
The possibility of causing harm to participants 245
Maintaining confidentiality 246
Ethical issues to consider relating to the researcher 246
Avoiding bias 246
Provision or deprivation of a treatment 246
Using inappropriate research methodology 247
Incorrect reporting 247
Inappropriate use of the information 247
Ethical issues regarding the sponsoring organisation 247
Restrictions imposed by the sponsoring organisation 247
The misuse of information 248
Summary 248
STEP VII PROCESSING AND DISPLAYING DATA 251
15 Processing data 253
Part one: Data processing in quantitative studies 255
Editing 255
Coding 256
Part two: Data processing in qualitative studies 211
Content analysis in qualitative research - an example 279
The role of statistics in research 288
Summary 288
16 Displaying data 291
Methods of communicating and displaying analysed data 291
Text 292
Tables 292
Graphs 297
Summary 308
CONTENTS xiii
STEP VIII WRITING A RESEARCH REPORT 311
17 Writing a research report 313
Writing a research report 313
Developing an outline 314
Writing about a variable 319
Referencing 320
Writing a bibliography 321
Summary 321
18 Research methodology and practice evaluation 323
What is evaluation? 324
Why evaluation? 325
Intervention-development-evaluation process 327
Perspectives in the classification of evaluation studies 328
Types of evaluation from a focus perspective 329
Evaluation for programme/intervention planning 330
Process/monitoring evaluation 332
Evaluating participation of the target population 333
Evaluating service delivery manner 335
Impact/outcome evaluation 337
Cost-benefit/cost-effectiveness evaluation 341
Types of evaluation from a philosophical perspective 342
Goal-centred/objective-oriented evaluation 342
Consumer-oriented/client-centred evaluation 342
Improvement-oriented evaluation 343
Holistic/illuminative evaluation 343
Undertaking an evaluation: the process 343
Step 1: Determining the purpose of evaluation 343
Step 2: Developing objectives or evaluation questions 344
Step 3: Converting concepts into indicators into variables 347
Step 4: Developing evaluation methodology 350
Step 5: Collecting data 350
Step 6: Analysing data 350
Step 7: Writing an evaluation report 351
Step 8: Sharing findings with stakeholders 351
Involving stakeholders in evaluation 351
Ethics in evaluation 352
Summary 353
Appendix: Developing a research project: a set of exercises for beginners 355
Glossary 377
Bibliography 403
Index 409