CONTENTS Executive Summary xv Foreword xix Part I: WHY CCS? CHAPTER ICCS in a Global Context 3 1.1 Climate change in a world dominated by fossil fuel 4 1.2Fossil fuels and CO2 in the next decades 2010-2050 22 1.3The role of CCS as a GHG mitigation solution 44 1.4 Key messages from Chapter 1 56 References 57 CHAPTER 2CCS Deployment Status, Regional Applicability, and Stakeholders 61 2.1 CCS deployment: status and forecast61 2.2 One solution will not fit all: regional applicability of CCS 72 2.3 Regional update: CCS status and stakeholders organizations79 2.4 CCS implementation strategies for the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia 96 2.5 Key messages from Chapter 2 103 References105 Part II: TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION AND OPERABILITY OFTHE CCS CHAIN CHAPTER 3CO2 Capture and Separation 109 3.1 Description of CO2 emitting processes 109 3.2 Capture and separation technologies 111 3.3 Capture of CO2 today 112 3.4 Combustion processes that simplify CO2 separation 124 3.5Overall challenges for CO2 capture, anticipated deployment 132 3.6Key messages from Chapter 3 135 References 136 CHAPTER 4CO2Transport Systems 139 4.1Transport technologies review 139 4.2 Toward infrastructure deployment 151 4.3Key messages from Chapter 4 156 References 157 CHAPTER 5CO2 Geological Storage 159 5.1Underground storage solutions 159 5.2Carbon dioxide trapping mechanisms162 5.3 Underground storage technologies171 5.4 Project development design 213 5.5 Key messages from Chapter 5 227 References229 Part III: DEPLOYMENT DRIVERS CHAPTER 6CCS Regulatory Framework 235 6.1Emissions mitigation policies 235 6.2 CCS regulations 257 6.3Key messages from Chapter 6 274 References 275 CHAPTER 7Economics of the CCS Chain 277 7.1 Obtaining an adequate price for CO2277 7.2 Cost of the CCS chain 283 7.3 CCS Economy 298 7.4 CCS projects financing 305 7.5 When to move to CCS? 309 7.6 Key messages from Chapter 7 311 References 312 CHAPTER 8CCS Quality Standards- Challenges to Commercialization 315 8.1Social and environmental standpoints on CCS Risk 315 8.2 Risk 326 8.3 Multi-stakeholder engagement, project quality standards, and risk mitigation/communication 335 8.4 Key messages from Chapter 8341 References 342 CHAPTER 9Conclusion: A Pragmatic Way Forward345 9.1 CCS deployment strategy: connecting the dots 345 9.2CCS: An element of future sustainable economies 347 Glossary349 Appendix 1 List of Figures 359 Appendix 2 List of Tables365 Appendix 3 List of Boxes 367 Index 369