CONTENTS Foreword by Lokesh Chandra vii Preface by Mark Long and Lokesh Chandra ix Acknowledgement xvii List of Illustrations xix List of Tables xxiv Introduction 1 PART I HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 1. DISTANT BEGINNINGS7 The EL Dorado of the Asian World 9 An Eclectic Approach to Cultural Borrowing 11 Early Inscriptional Evidence 12 The Javanese Kingdom of Taruma 13 A Cataclysmic Event 14 Java's Book of Ancient Kings 15 A Devastating Impact J 17 The Emergence of Srivijaya 18 2. THE RISE AND FALL OF JAVA'S CLASSIC AGE' CIVILIZATION 23 The Illustrious King Safvjaya 24 Lord of the Mountain 26 The Maharaja of Zabag 30 An Ambitious Temple-Building Programme 32 Candl Sewu, Lumbung and Bubrah 33 The Abhayagiri Monastery 34 Candi Plaosan, Sari and Sajiwan 34 The Venuvana Monastery 40 Candl Mendut, Ngawen, Pawon and Sajiwan 41 The Sailendra Decline 43 Kamulan I Bhumisarhbhara 45 The Maharaja of the Land of Gold 46 The Sailendra beyond Java's Shores 49| A Calamity of Horrific Proportions 50 Merapi during Pre-Historic Periods 52 Other Hypotheses for the Migration to East Java 55 The Vartanyan Theory 56 A BUDDHIST FOUNDATION 61 The One Thus Come 61 Challenging the Hindu World-view 62 Enduring Symbols of the Buddha's Continuing Presence 66 The Elder School67 The Greater Vehicle 69 The Development of Mahayana Buddhism 70 Tantric Buddhism 72 An Initiation into the Mandala 73 PART II BOROBUDUR AND ITS ENVIRONS 4. THE MAGIC OF LOCATION 77 In Harmony with the Local Surroundings 78 The Descent of the Cosmic River 79 Local Legends and Indigenous Practices 82 The Axis of the Universe 86 The Mount Merapi Sunrise 89 King, Kraton, Kingdom and Cosmos94 CandiPawonandCandiMendut 98 The Lotus Throne on the Lake 100 The Search in Borobudur's Vicinity 105 In Search of the SailendraKraton 107 5. AN APPROACH FROM THE EAST111 The Bas-Reliefs on the Monument's Hidden Foot114 Ascending the Eastern Staircase 118 Entering the Bas-Relief Galleries 122 The jatakamala 126 Jataka and Avadanas 127 The Lalitavistara-sutra 127 The Gandavyuha 128 TheBhadracari 128 Borobudur's Jina Images 128 The 72 Jinas at the Summit 129 At the Apex of the Pyramid 140 S'TheNameBorobudur 143 6. BUILDING AND RESTORATION ACTIVITIES 145 The Ground Plan 145 Phases of Construction 150 Bringing the Temple to Life152 Ancient Building Techniques 153 Modern Restoration Ethics and Techniques158 Conservation Efforts at Borobudur 161 The Never-Ending Battle K 164 PART HI AN ARCHITECTURAL REAPPRAISAL 7. THE RESIDENCE OF DIVINITY 169 Borobudur's Foot, Body and Head 170 Like Demi-Gods Rushing Along the Ways of the Firmament 171 Borobudur and the Structure of the Vedic Fire Altar174 The First Layer of the Fire Altar 174 The Second Layer 175 The Third Layer 175 The Fourth Layer 176 The Fifth Layer 176 The Covering Layers of Soil 176 The Sailendra Cakravartin 179 Rites of Kingship182 The Vastupurusa Mandala at the Summit184 On the Road to Kusinagara 187 8. NUMERICAL, ASTRONOMICAL AND DIMENSIONAL SYMBOLISM 195 The Numerical Symbolism of the Jina Images 196 A Day of the Gods on Mount Meru 200 Temporal Symbolism on the Lower Levels 201 Solar Symbolism in the Lalitavistara Reliefs 204 The Numerical Symbolism of the Summit 209 A Time without Shadows 212 The Legend of King Mountain Stone 215 Mirroring the Celestial Realm 218 Dimensional Symbolism 222 9. CANDI MENDUT 229 The Images Inside the Main Cella 230 The Vestibule Reliefs 232 The Bas-Reliefs on the Cella Partition Walls234 The Footer Reliefs of the 2nd Ambulatory Path 238 The Bas-Reliefs on the Staircase Wings 239 The Ground-Level Ambulatory Path 241 A Rooftop Mandala? 243 A Lighthouse of Buddhism 245 PART IV DECODING THE MESSAGE 10. THE GHOST IN THE MACHINE 251 The Matrix and the Diamond World Mandalas 252 Eight Great Objections 253 The Resemblance is Overly Superficial and Vague253 The Lack of Numerical Conformity254 Borobudur Uniquely Portrays Six Jina Types254 The Unexplained Presence of Narrative Bas-Reliefs 254 The Lack of Symbols that are Specifically Tantric 256 The Jina Images are too Physically Remote 256 The Absence of Evidence Pointing to an Esoteric Ritual Intent 258 The Absence of Image Diversity 261 A Sinhalese Connection? 261 A Javanese Master of the Garbhadatu Mandala 264 The Influence of Nalanda ! 266 11. THE UNFOLDING OF DIVINITY 271 Pacing the Void272 The Stages of the Revelation-Enlightenment 273 The Akanistha Heaven at Borobudur 276 The Awakening of the Complete, Manifest Buddha 278 The Production of a Four-Faced Vairocana at Borobudur? 282 The Tathagata's Three Mystery Bodies283 Suggestions for Further Research 284 APPENDIX A: Architectural Drawings293 APPENDIX B: Glossary 301 APPENDIX C: Bibliography 307 TERMS INDEX319