CONTENTS 1 Transport Biofuels: Their Characteristics, Production and Costs 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 The Physical Basis for Biofuels 3 1.3 Biofuel Varieties 4 1.4 Virtual Biofuels 10 1.5 Production and Application of Liquid and Gaseous Transport Biofuels 12 1.5.1Biofuels from Terrestrial Plants and Animals 12 1.5.2 Biofuels from Aquatic Biomass 21 1.5.3 Hydrogen Production Mediated by Micro-Organisms 24 1.6 Biofuel-Based Electricity for Transport 25 1.7 Recent Development of Transport Biofuel Production : Volume, Costs and Prices 26 1.7.1 Volume of Biofuel Production 26 1.7.2 Costs of Biofuel Production and Biofuel Prices 28 1.8 Key Issues and the Rest of This Book 32 References 35 2 Energy Balance: Cumulative Fossil Fuel Demand and Solar Energy Conversion Efficiency of Transport Biofuels 49 2.1 Introduction 49 2.2 Allocation 50 2.3 Cumulative Fossil Fuel Demand 52 2.3.1 Transport Biofuels from Terrestrial Plants 52 2.3.2 Transport Biofuels from Wastes 53 2.3.3 Transport Biofuels from Aquatic Biomass 53 2.4 Conversion of Solar Energy into Biomass 55 2.4.1 Terrestrial Plants 56 2.4.2 Terrestrial Biofuels 57 2.4.3 Biofuels from Algae and Aquatic Macrophytes 61 2.5 Solar Conversion Efficiencies of Physical Methods 64 2.6 Overall Energy Efficiencies in Performing Work 65 References 67 3 Non-energy Natural Resource Demand 75 3.1 Introduction75 3.2 Soil and Soil Organic Matter 75 3.3 Nutrients 79 3.3.1Forests and Plantations 80 3.3.2 Agricultural Soils 83 3.4 Water85 3.5 Sustainable Use of Natural Resources and Biomass Yields 88 References 89 4 Climate Effects and Non-greenhouse Gas Emissions Associated with Transport Biofuel Life Cycles 101 4.1 Introduction 101 4.2 Uncertainty in the Life Cycle Environmental Impact Assessments of Biofuels102 4.3 Transport Biofuels and Climate 103 4.3.1 Introduction 103 4.3.2 Fossil-Fuel-Based Carbonaceous Greenhouse Gas Emissions 104 4.3.3 N2O Emissions 105 4.3.4 Biogenic CO2 Emissions 106 4.3.5 Other Carbonaceous Biogenic Emissions 111 4.4 Net Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Specific Biofuels and Categories of Biofuels 111 4.4.1 Net Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Specific Biofuels 111 4.4.2 Net Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Categories of Transport Biofuels 113 4.5 Non-greenhouse Gas Emissions 116 4.6 Potential for Emission Reduction 119 References 120 5 The Impact of Expanded Biofuel Production on Living Nature 129 5.1 Introduction 129 5.2 Loss of Biodiversity and Its Impact on Natural Resources Which Have Monetary Value 134 5.3 Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function Loss Due to Replacement of Nature 135 5.4 Cropping and Harvesting Feedstocks for Biofuels 138 5.4.1 Cropping and Crop Harvesting Practices 138 5.4.2 Harvesting Nature 139 5.5 Invasive Species 140 References 141 6 Frequently Asked Questions in the Transport Biofuel Debate149 6.1 Introduction 149 6.2 A Focus on One Transport Biofuel Output or on Biorefineries? 149 6.3 Can Transport Biofuels Significantly Contribute to Energy Security? 151 6.4 Transport Biofuels, Food Prices and Food Security 153 6.5 Is Expanding Biofuel Production a Good Way to Tackle Climate Change? 156 6.6 Transport Biofuel Production and Nature Conservation 158 6.7 How to Use Natural Resources for Biofuel Production in a Sustainable Way? 159 6.8 What Government Policy Should One Aim at for Transport Biofuels? 160 6.8.1 Hard Choices 160 6.8.2 Evident Policy Priorities Regarding the Production of Biofuels 161 References 162 Index 167