Contents I. Introduction: The Political Iconography of the City29 1. What is a Capital City? The Definition of the Topic32 2. What is Representation? On the Role of Symbolism in Politics35 a. Representation36 b. Symbol and Politics37 3. Reconstructing Meaning: Remarks on the Method40 4. Capital City Planning in Context: Urban Design in the Early Twentieth Century44 a. The Tasks of Urban Design44 b. National Schools and International Connections46 II. Washington 1902: National Self-presentation of a Consolidated Democracy 50 1. Events up to 190250 2. First Plans52 3. The Senate Park Commission Plan55 a. The Comprehensive Plan56 b. The Public Buildings58 c. The Mall59 d. Design Means62 4. Protagonists and Positions63 a. Beauty, Unity, Civic Pride: Architects Supporting the Plan63 b. Patriotism, Democracy, Public Education: Politicians and Public Representatives Supporting the Plan70 c. Formalism, Autocracy: Architects Opposing the Plan77 d. Extravagance, Absolutism: Politicians and Press Opposing the Plan79 5. Steps towards Implementation after 190281 a. Bills82 b. Buildings 83 c. Monuments86 6. Imperial Representation on the Philippines: Manila and Baguio89 a. Manila90 b. Baguio92 7. Washington of the North: Ottawa94 a. First Plans94 b. The Federal Plan Commission 1913-1597 III. Greater Berlin 1910: Raising a European Capital to Imperial World Status 101 1. State Buildings in Berlin101 2. Launching the Competition104 3. Ideas and Expectations105 a. Government and Citizen Representatives: Health and Power105 b. Architects and City Planners: Monumental Expression of National Greatness 106 4. The Competition Designsno a. A First Prize: Hermann Jansenm b. A First Prize: Joseph Brix and Felix Genzmer114 c. Third Prize: Bruno Mohring, Rudolf Eberstadt and Richard Petersen114 d. Fourth Prize: Bruno Schmitz, Otto Blum, Havestadt & Contag117 e. Acquisitions and Other Designs121 5. Uniformity, Metropolis, Internationality, Democracy123 6. Picturesque, Small Town, Nation, Hierarchy130 7. Sentiment, Nature, Necessity133 a. Architecture as a Language of Sentiments133 b. Urban Design as a Product of Nature135 c. Necessary Expression through Fulfilment of Purpose137 8. Consequences138 9. Other European Capital Cities140 IV. Canberra 1912: Searching for Democratic Monumentality149 1. Events149 2. Australian Ideas151 a. Politicians: Greatness, Height and Centrality151 b. Architects: Meaningful Plan and Picturesque Elevation152 3. First Prize in the Competition: Walter Burley Griffin's Plan and His Comments155 a. Functional Fulfilment of Democratic Needs156 b. Symbolic Representation of Democratic Values156 c. Searching for a Democratic Language of Architecture158 d. Rooting Democratic Urban Design in Nature161 4. Other Award-winning Competition Plans162 a. Second and Third Prizes: Saarinen and Agache162 b. Prizewinners of the Minority Vote: Griffiths, Coulter & Caswell, Comey and Gellerstedt166 c. Acquisitions: Magonigle and Schaufelberg, Rees & Gummer169 5. Eliminated Competition Entries170 a. Comprehensive City Types: Radio-concentric, Grid and Informal170 b. Government District Types: Ring, Axis, Mall, Forum and Castle172 6. Reactions to the Competition and Other Consequences178 a. Overseas: Democratic Spirit and National Sensibility178 b. Australia: Griffin, the Progressive Rebel, and Canberra, the City of Freedom179 7. The Failure of the 1914 Competition for the Houses of Parliament183 a. A New Democratic Style184 b. Democratic Monumentality185 V. New Delhi 1913: Manifestation of the Empire's Supremacy189 1. Positions and Plans in the Empire189 a. The Urbanistic Debate in Great Britain189 b. Plans for an Imperial London194 c. The Union Buildings in Pretoria199 2. New Delhi: Events201 3. Positions and Opinions of the Participants207 a. Politicians: Enduring Rule through Selective Adaptation207 b. Architects: Western Superiority through Universal Classicism213 4. The Plan and the Buildings220 a. The Plan of the Delhi Town Planning Committee220 b. The Buildings by Edwin Landseer Lutyens and Herbert Baker223 5. Reactions and Critiques230 a. Travel Guides and History Books: Delhi as the Indian Rome and Key to Rule over India230 b. Newspapers and Journals: A Combination of Styles for a Co-operative Empire231 c. Architecture Journals: Imperial Politics between Colonial Export of Style and Benevolent Support for Regional Traditions234 VI. World Centre of Communication 1913.- The Futile Invention of an International City of Peace241 1. Academic and Other Ideal City Plans241 a. Austria 241 b. France 242 2. Peace Traditions253 a. The Hague: Peace Conferences, Peace Palace and World Capital of Peace 253 b. Brussels: Paul Otlet, Henri La Fontaine and the International Organisation of Knowledge257 3. The World Centre of Communication by Hendrik Christian Andersen and Ernest Hebrard258 a. Layout259 b. Political Goals: Communication, Progress and Peace267 4. Reactions and Criticism269 a. Dignitaries: Approval and Restraint270 b. Newspapers and Journals: Enthusiasm, Derision and Some Criticism272 5. Aftermath277 a. The League of Nations and the League of Nations Palace278 b. Otlet and the Mundaneum280 c. Andersen and the World Centre281 d. Hebrard and Urban Planning for the French Colonies282 VII. Conclusion: City Images and their Political A/leaning 286 1. Aesthetic City Types and their Political Connotations286 a. The Beaux-Arts City287 b. The Metropolis289 c. The Picturesque City 290 d. The Garden City291 e. The Skyscraper City 293 2. Urban Design and Architectural Means of Political Communication294 a. The Comprehensive City 294 b. Urban Elements295 c. Building Types and Elements297 d. Architectural Styles298 3. How Capital Cities Mean: Architecture and City as Signs300 a. Conventional Signs302 b. Natural Signs305 c. Complex Signs308 d. Unfocused Signs309 4. What Capital Cities Mean: Possibilities of Representing the State in the City311 Notes and Bibliography317 Appendix343 Index 363