Contents Preface xv Part I Chapter 1 The Nature of Organizations The Nature of Organizations 1 Overview1 Why Study Organizations?1 Why Do We Have Organizations? 4 The Definition of Organizations4 Organizations and Individuals 5 Categories of Individuals8 Organizations and the Community9 Societal Outcomes11 Same Specific Organizational Impacts General Societal Outcomes15 Organizations and Social Change17 Internal Change and the Social Structure The Organization as a Change Agent 17 Organizations as Resisters of Change 21 Multinational Organizations23 The Voluntary Organization 25 Why Study Organizations?25 Summary and Conclusions26 Exercises 26 Part II Organizational Structure Chapter 2 Organizational Structure: Forms and Outcomes 27 Overview27 Defining Organizational Structure29 Multiple Structures30 Structural Forms 31 Complexity31 Variance of Complexity Elements37 Coordination and Control 39 Some Additional Correlates of Complexity 42 Formalizaiion44 Formalization and Other Organizational Properties 46 Formal izacion and Outcomes for Individuals49 Reactions to Formalization 51 Centralization54 What Is Centralized or Decentralized?55 Centralization and Other Organizational Properties 55 Centralization and Macfapolitical Considerations 59 Centralization and Micmpolitical Considerations61 The Outcomes of Centralization62 Summary and Conclusions62 Exercises62 Chapter 3 Organizational Structure: Explanations 63 Overview63 Contextual Explanations65 Size65 Technology 68 Internal Culture72 The Environment73 National Culture74 Organizational Design77 Strategic Choice78 The Institutional Explanation81 Explaining Organizational Structure 83 Summary and Conclusions 84 Exercises 85 Part III Organizational Processes Chapter 4 Power and Power Outcomes 86 Overview 86 The Nature of Power in Organizations87 Authority and Power 87 Other Types of Power89 Access to Resources 90 Resources and Strategic Contingencies 91 Social Definitions and Strategic Contingencies 94 Shifts in Power95 Power Outcomes: Compliance and Involvement 96 Power Outcomes: Conflict 97 Bases of Conflict 97 Professional-Organizational Relationships 99 The Components of Conflict Situations 101 The Outcomes of Conflict103 Summary and Conclusions104 Exercises106 Chapter 5 Leadership 107 Overview107 What Is Leadership?108 Functions of Leadership109 Components of Leadership110 The Outcomes of Leadership for Organizations 114 Satisfaction and Productivity114 Leadership Succession117 Leadership in the Voluntary Organization125 Summary and Conclusions126 Exercises726 Chapter 6 Decision Making 127 Overview127 Organizations as Systems of Decisions128 Bounded Rationality and Organizations as Hierarchies of Decisions128 Organizational Structure and Decision Making129 Politics, Conflict, and Decision Making130 Strategic Decision Making 13! Uncertainty and Strategic Decisions131 Constraints on Decision Making132 Strategies of Power and Decision Making 134 Agenda Setting134 Controlling Information135 Forming Coalitions136 Summary and Conclusions136 Exercises136 Chapter 7 Communication 137 Overview737 The Importance of Communication138 Individual Factors140 Organizational Factors142 Vertical Communication142 Dysfunctions of Hierarchy and Some Positive Outcomes144 Horizontal Communication146 Communication Networks148 Communication Problems149 Omission149 Distortion150 Overload15O Communication to and from Outside the Organization151 Possible Solutions 151 Summary and Conclusions153 Exercises153 Chapter 8 Change 154 Overview154 The Nature of Organizational Change755 The Potential for Change156 The Change Process157 Organizational Change Cycles158 Innovation in Organizations167 Summary and Conclusions172 Exercises172 Part IVOrganizational Environments Chapter 9 Organizational Environments and Interorganizational Relationships 173 Overview173 The Environment and the Formation of Organizations174 Environmental Dimensions176 Technological Conditions176 Legal Conditions177 Political Conditions178 Economic Conditions179 Demographic Conditions181 Ecological Conditions182 Cultural Conditions182 Analytical Dimensions183 Environmental Capacity183 Environmental Homogeneity-Heterogeneity184 Environmental Stability-Instability 184 Environmental Concentration-Dispersion184 Domain Consensus-Dissensus185 Environmental Turbulence 185 The Perception of the Environment186 The Impact of the Environment on the Organization187 Interorganizational Relationships189 IOR: Forms and Levels189 A Framework for IOR Analysis193 Genera! Environmental Characteristics193 Situational Factors194 Reasons for Interaction197 Resource Flows200 Transaction Forms201 Interlocking Boards of Directors 202 Outcomes of IOR205 Summary and Conclusions206 Exercises206 Part VOrganizational Theory and Organizational Effectiveness Chapter 10Organizational Theory 207 Overview207 The Population-Ecology Model 208 The Resource-Dependence Model211 The Rational-Contingency Model 215 The Institutional Model 217 Combining the Perspectives227 Summary and Conclusions22 Exercises227 Chapter 11Organizational Effectiveness 222 Overview222 Toward a Contradiction Model of Effectiveness223 Models of Organizational Effectiveness225 The Goal Model 226 Goals and Effectiveness229 Participant-Satisfaction Models232 Constraints, Goals, and Participants235 Effectiveness for Whom?237 The Contradiction Model239 S ome Applications241 Summary and Conclusions 244 Exercises244 References 245 Name Index 275 Subject Index 285