CONTENTS Foreword xiii Preface xv List of Tables xvii List of Figures xxi Instruments of Social Research 1 Creativity 1 Methodology 6 Data Collection 7 Conceptualisation 11 Techniques 17 In Search of Excellence 21 Max Weber: Interpretative Sociology 25 Interpreting 1857 25 Life 28 Research Methodology 29 (a) Verstehen 29 (b) Ideal Types 31 (c) Value-freedom 32 (d) Explanations 34 (e) Induction and Deduction 36 Social Research: Meaning and Characteristics 41 What is Research? 41 Why is it Conducted? 41 How to Do Research? 42 Researchers 43 What is to be Done? 44 Types of Research 44 Linkage between Pure and Applied Research 48 Steps in Social Research 49 Social Surveys 49 Research Design 51 Stages of Survey 52 Introspection 52 Empirical Verification 54 Conclusions 63 Research Route 63 4 Scientific Methods: Meaning and Characteristics 65 Knowledge 65 Science 65 Technology 66 Scientific Institutions 67 Sociology 67 Unscientific Method 68 Positivism 70 Empiricism 70 Neo-positivism 70 Dialectic 71 Characteristics of the Method of Science 72 5 Observation 77 Definition 79 Field of Research 79 Fieldwork 81 Rapport 82 Data Collection 85 Data Analysis 88 Report Writing 88 Ethics of Participant Observation 89 Participant Observation and Social Surveys 90 6 Interviews and Questionnaires 92 Interviewing 92 Interviewers 96 Interviewees 100 Interview Situation 100 Data Processing and Analysis 107 Conclusions 107 Introduction 108 Questionnaires 108 Formulating Questions 113 Sequencing Items 122 Printing 125 7 Measurement and Scaling for Social Research 127 Classification 128 Measurement 128 Indicators 129 Index 129 Scale 130 Socio-economic Status 131 Prestige Grading of Occupations 132 Subjective Class Identification 133 Scale Construction 133 Scale 134 Qualities of Scales 135 8 Levels of Scaling 138 Statistical Tests for Scales 141 Item Analysis 142 Staple Scale 143 Thurstone Scales 144 Likert Scales 148 F-scale 151 Guttman Scale 154 Bogardus Scale 157 Multidimensional Scaling 160 Osgood's Semantic Differential Technique 163 Sociometry 166 Projective Techniques 167 RorshachTest 168 TAT 169 Word Association Test 170 Who am I? 171 Moreno's Sociometry 172 Conclusions: Choice of a Scale 176 Sampling 181 Types of Sampling 183 Sampling Bias 194 Non-sampling Bias 197 Sampling Error 197 Data Processing and Analysis 199 What are Data? 199 Data Collection 205 Data Analysis with Social Statistics 205 Use and Abuse of Statistics 206 Types of Statistics 208 Frequency Distribution 209 Diagrammatic and Graphic Representation 210 Steps for Constructing Diagram 210 Bar Diagram 211 Histogram 214 Pie Chart 214 Frequency Polygon 215 Average 216 Arithmetic Mean 216 Mode 218 Median 222 Geometric Mean 222 Harmonic Mean 224 Dispersion 224 Range 224 Variability 225 9 Mean Deviation or Average Deviation 225 Standard Deviation 226 Probability 226 Data Processing 229 Preparation of Data 230 Coding 230 Tabulation 234 Data Analysis 236 Univariate Tables 237 Percentage 238 Bivariate Tables 241 Correlation 250 Regression 264 ANOVA and MANOVA 267 Multivariate Analysis 267 Three-way Tables 268 Factor Analysis 269 Path Analysis 275 Discriminant Analysis 275 Report Writing 275 Conclusions 276 10 Report Writing 278 Contents 278 Sections 279 Review of Literature 280 Method of Research 281 Results and Discussion 282 Summary and Conclusions 282 Acknowledgements 282 Footnotes 283 Bibliography 283 Appendix 283 Style 284 Audience 284 Plagiarism 284 Organising Ideas 284 Words, Sentences and Paragraphs 285 Revision 286 Typing: Submission of Report 287 Binding 289 Dissertation and Thesis 289 Publication 290 Summary and Conclusions 290 Appendix Bibliography Index