CONTENTS PAGE LIST OF PLATES x PREFACE xiv CHAPTER I : INTRODUCTION 1 CHAPTER II : THE BACKGROUND 10 1. Geographical 10 2. Historical 16 A.Early Cheras and their Contemporaries 16 B. The Ay-vels 17 G. The Second Chera Dynasty . 20 D. The Miishikas , 32 E.The Venadu rulers 34 F.The Zamorins of Calicut 36 G. Contact with European Powers 37 H. The Vijayanagara Rulers and the Nayakas 39 I, Rise of Centralized Administration 40 3. Architectural 40 A.Introduction 40 B.The Chera rock-shelter 41 C.The Cave-temples 43 D.Relics of Buddhism 50 E.Jaina Vestiges 51 CHAPTER III : ARCHITECTURE 56 1. Introduction 56 2. Beginnings 59 3. Building Materials 61 4. Types of Ground-plan and their Distribution 63 5. Different Aspects of Elevation 73 A.General 73 B.The Adhishthana 75 C.The Bhitti and Prastara ' 81 6. The Shrine-Interior 84 7. Minor Features 87 A.General 87 B.The Sopana 89 C.The Pranala 89 D.The Balipltha 93 8. The Phases 95 A.General 95 B.The Early phase (A.D. 800-1000) 97 C.The Middle phase (A.D. 1001-1300) 97 D.The Late phase (A.D. 1301-1800) 99 9. Influences 101 CHAPTER IV : ART AND ICONOGRAPHY 103 1. Introduction 103 2. Stone-sculptures 104 A.Early phase 104 B.Middle phase 109 C.Late phase 113 3. Images in Clay or Stucco 116 4. Wood-sculptures 117 5. Metal-sculptures 120 6. Mural paintings 122 CHAPTER V : EARLY PHASE 132 1. Introduction 132 2. Temples in Ay Country 133 A.Introduction 133 B. Square Dravida shrine 135 (i) General 135 (ii) Description 135 Parthivasekharapuram : Parthasarathi temple 135 Munjira : Siva temple in Tirumalai temple-complex 138 Vilinjam : Siva temple 139 C.Rectangular Dravida shrine 141 (i) General 141 fii) Description 141 Vilinjam : Bhagavatl temple 141 D.Square Dravida-Kerala shrine 143 (i) General 143 (ii) Description 143 Kazhakutam : Mahadeva temple 143 E. Circular Dravida-Kerala shrine 145 (i) General 145 (ii) Description 145 Perumpaladur : the site of Naranattukkavu 145 3. Temples in Chera Country 147 A.Introduction 147 B.Square Dravida shrine 148 (i) General ' 148 (ii) Description 149 Nctirimangalam : Siva temple 149 C.Square Dravida-Kerala shrine 150 (i) General ' 150 (ii) Description 154 Tirukkulasekharapuram : Krishna temple 154 Methala near Thiruvanchikulam : Kilatali Siva temple 158 Tali : Siva or Nityavicharesvara temple 160 Panniyur : Lakshmlnarayana shrine in Ayyappan tern pie-complex 161 D.Circular Dravida-Kerala shrine 163 (i) General 163 (ii) Description 165 CONTENTS Polpulli : ruined Siva temple 165 Kaviyur : Siva temple 165 E,Apsidal Dravida-Kcrala shrine 167 (i) General 167 (ii) Description. 167 Manjeri : Ayyappan shrine in Karikkad-kshetram 167 Triprangod : Kalasamharamurti temple 169 Trikkandiyur : Siva temple 170 Tiruvannur : Siva temple 172 4. Temples in Mushika Country 172 A.Introduction 172 B.Square Dravida-Kerala shrine 173 (i) General 173 (ii) Description 173 Eraman : Chalappurattu-ambalam 173 Kannapuram : Kuruvakkava temple 175 Tricchambaram : Rajarajesvara temple 176 Tricchambarani : Krishna temple 177 C.Circular Dravida-Kerala shrine 179 (i) General 179 (ii) Description 181 Ramantali : Narayankannur temple 181 CHAPTER VI : MIDDLE PHASE 186 1. Introduction 186 2. Square shrine , 188 A.Dravida 188 (i) General 188 (ii) Description 190 Ghalapuram : Kattilmadam 190 B. Dravida-Kerala 191 (i) General 191 (ii) Description , 193 Peruvanam : Madattilappan shrine 192 Edappal : Sukapuram Dakshinamurti temple 193 Maniyur : Subrahmanya temple 193 Pullur : Sri Kddavalam Vishnu temple 195 Anantapuram ; Anantapadmanabhasvaml temple 197 3. Circular shrine 199 A.Dravida-Kerala 199 (i) General (ii) Description Manjeri : Subrahmanya shrine in Karikkad-kshetram Pulpatta : Siva temple Trichur : Vadakkunnatha temple Triprayar : Rama temple Peruvanam : Irattayappan shrine ARCHITECTURAL SURVEY OF TEMPLES OF KERALA Tirunillai : Siva temple 209 Venganellur : Tiruvembilappan temple 212 Udayampcrur ; Peruntirukkoyil 213 Nemam : Niramankara temple 215 Puiialur : Sri Trikotesvara Mahadeva temple 217 4. Apsidal shrine 219 A.Dravida-Kerala 219 (i) General 219 (ii) Description 220 Kizhavellur : Vamana temple 220 Panjal : Sri Ayyappankavu temple 222 Nedumpura : Siva temple 223 Triprangod : Kalasarhharamurti temple 225 Trikkaridiyur : Siva temple 227 Tiruvannur : Siva temple 228 CHAPTER VII : LATE PHASE 230 1. Introduction 230 2. Square shrine 234 A.Dravida 234 (i) General 234 (ii) Description 235 Quilon : Ganapati temple 235 Quilon : Sri Ramesvara temple 237 Kanjirapalli : Ganapati temple 239 B. Dravida-Kera la 240 (i) General 240 (ii) Description 241 Kalpathi (Palghat) : Visvanatha temple . 241 Podiyal : Krishna temple 243 Udayanapuram : Subrahmanya temple 244 Kozhikode : Tali temple 246 Ghengannur : Narasirhha temple 249 3. Circular shrine 252 A.General '252 B. Dravida 252 (i) General 252 (ii) Description 253 Tiruvallam : Parasuraniesvara temple 253 Valaya-Udayadichchapuram : Sri Valaya-Udayesvaram temple 255 C.Dravida-Kerala 256 (i) General 256 (ii) Description . 258 Navaikulam : Sri Sankaranarayana temple 258 Ettumanur : Siva temple 259 Tiruvalattur : Bhagavati temple 261 4. Apsidal shrine 263 A.General . 263 B,Dravida-Kerak 264 (i) Description 264 Payynnur : Subrahrnanya temple o 264 Mangalapadi : SadaSiva temple 265 Aduru : Mahalingesvara temple 267 5. Elliptical shrine 269 A.General 269 B.Dravida-Kerala 269 (i) Description 269 Vaikam : Siva temple 269 Select Bibliography 272 Glossary of Indian Architectural Terms 273 Index 279