CONTENTS : Acknowledgements xi 1 INTRODUCTION 1 2 DOUBT 20 2.1Nature of Doubt: Nyaya 22 2.2Contrastive and Theory-laden Nature of Doubt 24 2.3Types of Doubt 28 2.4Limits of Doubt: Nyaya and Peirce 30 2.5The Nature of Scientific Doubt 32 2.6Resolving Doubt and the Process of Knowledge 37 3 INDIAN LOGIC 43 3.1Logic in India 46 3.2Nyaya 47 3.3Dignaga and Buddhist Logic: Sign and Inference 52 3.4Classification of Reason: Wheel of Reason60 3.5 Dharmakirti 63 3.6General Differences between Indian and Western Logic 74 3.7Summary of Themes in Indian Logic Relevant to Philosophy of Science 79 3.7.1 Induction and Deduction 80 3.7.2 Pervasion or Invariable Concomitance (vyapti) 82 3.7.3 Tarka 88 3.7.4 Upadhis 91 3.7.5 Fallacies of Reason (Hetvabhasa) 93 3.7.6 Universal Positive and Negative Signs 96 3.7.7 Definitions (laksana) 98 3.7.8 Properties 101 4. LOGIC IN SCIENCE: THE WESTERN WAY 107 4.1Deduction in Science 109 4.2Deduction and Mathematics 113 4.3Induction 116 4.4Descriptive Models of Induction 121 4.5Mill's Methods 124 4.6Popper and the Problem of Induction 130 4.7Explanation 134 4.8Inference to the Best Explanation 139 4.9Scientific Explanation 142 4.10 Definitions 147 4.11 Laws and Counterfactuals 152 5. SCIENCE IN LOGIC: THE INDIAN WAY? 157 5.1Indian Logic and Science: Trying too Hard to Fit? 157 5.2Logic as Semiotic: Peirce on Signs 162 5.3Signs, Symbols and Theory 170 5.4Arbitrary and Objective Signs 175 5.5Science and Semiotics 179 5.5.1 Signs in Experiments 183 5.5.2 Signs, Theory and Experiment 185 5.5.3 Sign-signified Relation in Applied Mathematics 191 5.6Explanation and Indian Logic 194 5.6.1 Explaining the General 199 5.6.2 Inference and Explanation 203 5.6.3 Inference to the Best Explanation 206 6.KNOWLEDGE, TRUTH AND LANGUAGE 209 6.1Pramana Theory 210 6.2 Some Basic Themes in Western Epistemology 212 6.3Pramana and Causal Theory of Knowledge 215 6.4Scientific Knowledge 218 6.5Truth in Western and Indian Philosophies 224 6.5.1 Truth and Action in Science and Indian Philosophies 226 6.6Knowledge and Language 232 6.7 Technical Language and Mathematics 236 6.8Science, Effability and Bhartrhari 240 Notes 251 References 259 Index 265