CONTENTS Acknowledgements i Table of Contents iii List of figures vii List of tables xiii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Background and context of research 1 1.2 Research objectives 6 1.3 Dissertation outline 8 2 Geo-mobile applications and pedestrian users 11 2.1 Introduction 11 2.2 Geo-mobile applications: developments and issues 11 2.2.1 Representation of reality on mobile displays 12 2.2.2 Context awareness and map adaptation 14 2.2.3 Addressing the problems of mobile map presentation 17 2.2.3.1 Overview-plus-detail 17 2.2.3.2 Focus-plus-context and fish-eye view 19 2.2.3.3 Off-screen object visualization 19 2.2.3.4 Smooth (animated) zooming and panning 24 2.2.3.5 Vario-scale maps 26 2.2.4 Map orientation and navigation differences between individuals 27 2.2.5 2D, 3D and bird's-eye view map perspectives 29 2.3 Spatial perception and cognition 31 2.3.1 Visualizing mental maps 33 2.4 Reality and the context of pedestrian mobile map users 34 2.5 Connecting reality, mobile maps and cognitive maps 35 2.5.1 Mental maps and mapping applications 35 2.5.2 Mental maps and the role of landmarks 36 2.6 Conclusion 37 3 Issues addressed by geo- mobile applications 39 3.1 Introduction 39 3.2 Existing mobile pedestrian navigation applications 39 3.3 Mobile pedestrian navigation research prototype applications 44 3.3.1 Case 1: m-Loma 44 3.3.2 Case 2: REAL project 47 3.3.3 Case 3: EGSSystem 48 3.3.4 Case 4: Navitime 51 3.3.5 Case 5: Lol@ 55 3.3.6 Case 6: MAPPER 58 3.3.7 Case 7: GiMoDig 61 3.4 Analysis 66 3.5 Conclusion 70 4 User-Centred Design and Requirement Analysis 71 4.1 Introduction 71 4.2 Usability as an outcome of UCD 71 4.3 Human-Computer Interaction 73 4.4 User-Centred Design fundamentals 75 4.5 Specific research methods and techniques in the three stages of the UCD process 78 4.6 UCD methodology for geo-mobile interfaces as applied in this research 79 4.7 User profile 80 4.8 Experimental investigation of user requirements 81 4.8.1 Selection of geo-mobile applications 82 4.8.2 Test persons 84 4.8.3 Study area 86 4.8.4 Research methods and techniques 87 4.8.5 Briefing and training of the test persons 89 4.8.6 Mobile observation and thinking aloud in the field 89 4.9 Results and analysis of the requirement analysis experiment 93 4.9.1 Task execution 93 4.9.2 Mental maps 94 4.9.3 Test outcomes 95 4.10 Conclusions 97 5 Conceptual design and prototype implementation 99 5.1 Introduction 99 5.2 Task analysis 100 5.3 Additional information requirements 106 5.4 Use case modelling of user interactions 109 5.5 System Design Requirements 114 5.6 Proposed interface functionality 125 5.7 Landmark types and icon design 125 5.8 Global landmark visibility calculation 128 5.9 Prototype development environment 130 5.10 Code development and issues 132 5.10.1 LandNavin prototype (LN) 133 5.10.2 Map orientation issues 133 5.10.3 Map controls 136 5.10.4 Software crashes 137 5.10.5 Landmark handling 137 5.10.6 Multi-path provision 140 5.11 Conclusions 141 6. Usability evaluation -directions for design improvement 143 6.1 Introduction 143 6.2 Evaluation aims, methodology and execution 143 6.2.1 Usability questions 144 6.2.2 Task scenarios 147 6.2.3 Study areas and session structure 151 6.2.4 Research methodology 155 6.2.5 Pre-selection questionnaire and post-session interview 159 6.2.6 Briefing and training 159 6.2.7 Pilot testing 160 6.2.8 Selecting and scheduling the test persons 164 6.2.9 Test execution 167 6.2.10 Resulting research material 169 6.3 Analysis of the results 171 6.3.1 Outcomes of the analysis -task execution 172 6.3.2 Interviews and direct feedback from the test persons 188 6.3.3 Proposed solutions based on the usability testing results 197 6.3.4 Answering the usability questions 199 6.4 Conclusion 203 7 Conclusions and discussion 205 7.1 Overview 205 7.2 Answering the research questions 208 7.3 Recommendations for further research 214 Appendix 1: Requirement analysis experiment pre-selection questionnaire 217 Appendix 2: Requirement analysis experiment literal instructions 221 Appendix 3: Requirement analysis interview questions 227 Appendix 4: Prototype usability testing pre-selection questionnaire 229 Appendix 5: Prototype usability testing literal instructions 233 Appendix 6: Prototype usability testing interview questions 237 Appendix 7: Example of transcription of research materials for one test person 239 References 245 URLS 257 Summary 259 ITC Dissertation List 263