CONTENTS Foreword xi Preface xiii Acknowledgements xix List of Acronyms Used xxiii Table of Cases xxv 1. Introduction 1 2. Environmental Laws: Meaning, Concept, Nature and Scope 19 2.1 Introduction 19 2.2 Environment 22 2.2.1 Environmental Concept 23 2.2.2 Components of Environment 25 2.2.3 Types of Environment 26 2.2.4 Ecology 27 2.2.5 Ecosystem 28 2.2.5.1 Type of Ecosystem 31 2.3Environmental Ethics 33 2.3.1 Anthropocentric Environmental Ethics 34 2.3.2 Biocentrism Environmental Ethics 39 2.3.3 Ecocentric Environmental Ethics 41 2.3.4 Non-Anthropocentric or Deep Ecology 41 2.3.5 Environmental Protection in India-A Historical Perspective 43 2.4Environmental Law 47 2.5Characteristics of Environmental Law 49 2.6Environment Protection Laws 53 3. Development of Environmental Laws 67 3.1 Introduction 67 3.2Classification of Environmental Law 69 3.2.1 Conventional Environmental Law 70 3.2.2 National Environmental Law: Indian Perspective 72 3.2.3 International Environmental Law (IEL) 74 3.2.3.1 Stockholm Declaration on the Human Environment, 197279 3.2.3.2 Post-Stockholm Conference 1972 and Follow-up 8t> 3.2.3.3 World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) 92 3.2.3.4 Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, 1992 95 3.2.3.5 Agenda 21 101 3.2.3.6 The Kyoto Protocol, 1997 103 3.2.3.7 Johannesburg Summit, 2002 (Earth Summit) 108 Principles of Environmental Laws 129 4.1 Introduction 129 4.2Development of Environmental Law Principles 131 4.2.1 Precautionary Principle 136 4.2.2 The Polluter Pays Principle 141 4.2.3 Sustainable Development 146 4.2.4 The Doctrine of Public Trust 157 4.2.5 Hazardous Substances-Absolute Liability 162 4.2.6 The Principle of Prevention 165 4.2.7 Principle of New Burden Proof 167 4.2.8 Inter-Generational Equity 168 Constitutional and Legislative Provisions for Environment Protection 179 5.1 Background 179 5.2Fundamental Rights: Relating to Environment Protection 184 5.2.1 Scope of Article 21 and Environment Protection 188 5.3Directive Principles of State Policy and Environment Protection 193 5.4Fundamental Duties and Environment Protection 199 5.5Judicial Activism and Environment 202 5.6Environmental Legislations 213 5.6.1 Pre-Independence Environment Legislations 215 5.6.2 Post-Independence Environment Legislations 218 5.6.3 Types of Legislations 221 5.7Common Law Principles 226 5.7.1 Tort Law 227 5.7.2 Nuisance 228 5.7.3 Trespass 230 5.7.4 Negligence 230 5.7.5 Strict Liability 230 5.8Specific Statutory Provisions 230 5.8.1 Indian Penal Code 231 5.8.2 Criminal Procedure Code, 1973 , 232 5.8.3 Civil Procedure Code 1908 233 5.8.4 Factories Act, 1948 234 5.9Specific Environment Legislations: Obligations and Responsibilities 235 5.9.1 The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 235 5.9.2 The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977 236 5.9.3 The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 237 5.9.4 Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 238 5.9.5 Hazardous Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, 1989 and Amendment Rules, 2003 240 5.9.6 Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous Chemicals Rules, 1989 and Amendment 1994,2000 240 5.9.7 The Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991 241 5.9.8 Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 241 5.9.9 The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 Amended in 1983,1986 and 1991 242 5.9.10 The National Environment Tribunal Act, 1995 242 5.9.11National Environment Appellate Authority Act, 1997 243 6.Environmental Status of the Western Himalayas: With Special Reference to Himachal Pradesh 252 6.1 Western Himalayas: An Overview 252 6.1.1 The Greater Himalaya (Himadri) 255 6.1.2 The Lesser Himalaya (Himachal) 255 6.1.3 The Outer Himalaya Sub-Himalaya Tract (Shiwaliks) 255 6.2Development Impact on the Environment of the Western Himalaya 256 6.3Himachal Pradesh: A Storehouse of Nature 260 6.4Physiography 261 6.5Location 263 6.6Climate 263 6.7Geology 263 6.8Soil Condition 264 6.9Himachal Pradesh: An Abode of Natural Resources 264 6.10 Forest Resources 265 6.10.1Types of Forest 271 6.10.2 Classification of Forest 271 6.11 Medicinal Plants Resources 274 6.12 Hydropower Resources 276 6.13 Environment Protection Strategy of Himachal Pradesh 283 6.13.1The Constitutional Provisions 284 6.13.2 The Indian Forest Act, 1927 287 6.13.3 The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 288 6.13.4 Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 291 6.13.5 Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 292 6.13.6National Forest Policy, 1988 294 6.13.7 Participatory or Joint Forest Management 297 6.13.8 Settlement of Forest Rights 298 6.13.9 Legal Treatment of Un-Demarcated Forests and other Wastelands 299 6.13.10 Legal Controls over Forests on Private Land 300 6.13.11 Trade, Transit and Processing of Forest Products 300 6.13.12 Local Government 301 7.Environmental Conditions in the Tribal Areas of Himachal Pradesh 306 7.1 Tribal Areas of Himachal Pradesh 306 7.2Kinnaur District 308 7.2.1 Physiography 308 7.2.2 Boundaries of Kinnaur District 309 7.2.3 Geological 310 7.2.4 Rock Structure 310 7.2.5 Soil Profile 312 7.2.6 Distribution of Flora and Fauna 312 7.2.6.1 Forest 312 7.2.6.2 Wildlife 315 7.3Lahaul and Spiti District: Background 317 7.3.1 Physiography 317 7.3.2 Geology 318 7.3.3 River System 318 7.4Lahaul: A Brief Profile 319 7.4.1 Physiography 320 7.4.2 Geology 321 7.4.3 Distribution of Flora and Fauna 322 7.4.4 Wildlife 323 7.5Spiti: Brief Detail 324 7.5.1 Physiography 324 7.5.2 Boundaries 325 7.5.3 River System 326 7.5.4 Geology 326 7.5.5 Distribution of Flora and Fauna 327 7.6Tribal Areas of Chamba District 327 7.6.1 Geo-Ecology Condition 328 7.6.2 Pangi Tribal Area of Chamba District 329 7.6.3 Geology 329 7.6.4 Distribution of Flora and Fauna 330 7.6.5 Wildlife 330 7.7Bharmaur Tribal Area 332 7.7.1 Physiography 332 7.7.2 Flora and Fauna 332 7.8Characteristics of Tribal Areas 333 7.8.1 Inaccessibility 334 7.8.2 Fragility 334 7.8.3 Marginality 335 7.8.4 Diversity 335 7.8.5 Niche 336 7.9Nature and Tribals337 7.10 Reflection of Development on Environment 339 7.11 Ecological Sustainable Development 341 7.12 Public Participation 343 7.13 Environmental Degradation in the Tribal Areas of Himachal Pradesh 346 7.13.1Soil Erosion 347 7.13.2 Risks of Earthquakes 349 7.13.3 Forest Destruction 352 7.13.4 Wildlife 353 7.13.5 Disturbance of Geological Strata 355 7.13.6 Disruption of Drainage Pattern 355 7.13.7 Disturbance of Water Resources 356 7.13.8 Increase of Air and Noise Pollution 356 7.13.9 Destruction of Medicinal Plants 357 7.13.10 Flash Flood and Cloud Burst 357 7.13.11 Landslides 359 7.13.12 Land Environment 364 7.13.13 Change of Micro-Meteorology 365 7.13.14 Overgrazing 365 7.13.15 Quarrying 366 7.13.16 Road Construction 366 7.13.17 Avalanches 368 7.14 Causes of Environmental Degradation 369 7.14.1Deforestation 371 7.14.2 Illicit Fellings 372 7.14.3 Grazing 373 7.14.4 Encroachment 374 7.14.5 Forest Fires 375 7.14.6 Timber Distribution Rights 378 7.14.7 Use of Pesticides 379 7.14.8 Hydropower 381 8.Degradation of Environment in the Tribal Areas of Himachal Pradesh: An Empirical Analysis 393 9.Environment Protection and Sustainable Development in the Tribal Areas of Himachal Pradesh: A Composite Overview of People 421 10. Statutory Environmental Provisions and Perceptions of Tribal People of Himachal Pradesh 469 11. Conclusion: Main Findings and Suggestions 498 11.1 Conclusion 498 11.1.1Constitutional Remedies 502 11.1.2Civil Remedies 503 11.1.3 Criminal Remedies 505 11.1.4Remedies under Environmental Statutes 505 11.1.5 Judicial Remedies for Administrative Action 506 11.2 Main Findings 507 11.3 Implications 514 11.4 Suggestions 515 Bibliography 525 Index 546