Our changing planet : an introduction to earth system science and global environmental change
Mackenzie, Fred T.
Our changing planet : an introduction to earth system science and global environmental change - Ed.4 - New Delhi Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd. 2011 - xiv,579p.
CONTENTS Preface xi 1 Introduction: The Changing Planetary System1 Space and Time Perspective of the World's People 2 Space and Time Scales of Earth Processes 3 The Concept of Cycling 4 The Technosphere 5 The Natural System and its Human Dimensions 7 Additional Sources of Information11 2 Earth's Lithosphere: Geologic Time and Building Blocks12 Geologic Framework of Time 13 Some Historical Events 13 The Geologic Time Scale15 Earth's Building Blocks: Minerals 18 Earth's Building Blocks: Rocks 22 Igneous Rocks22 Sedimentary Rocks23 Deep-Sea Sediments and Earth History26 Metamorphic Rocks31 Soils 31 Soil Classification33 Climate and Soils34 Concluding Remarks 38 Study Questions 38 Additional Sources of Information 39 3 Earth's Lithosphere: Plate Tectonics 40 Earth's Interior 42 The Core of Earth45 The Mantle of Earth45 The Crust and Lithosphere of Earth 47 Oceanic Crust47 Continental Crust54 Concluding Remarks 63 Study Questions 65 Additional Sources of Information 65 4 The Fluid Earth: Atmosphere 66 The Atmosphere 67 Stratosphere 75 Troposphere 75 Air Masses80 Clouds83 Prediction of Weather and Climate 85 Concluding Remarks 86 Study Questions 88 Additional Sources of Information 89 5 The Fluid Earth: Hydrosphere and Air-Sea Interactions 90 The Water Cycle 91 Water Reservoirs 91 Oceans93 Cryosphere 109 Minor Water Reservoirs110 The Air-Sea Interactions 111 Intertropical Convergence Zone111 El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) 113 The Atlantic and Pacific Decadal Oscillations123 Concluding Remarks125 Study Questions126 Additional Sources of Information127 6 Our Living Planet: Earth's Ecosphere128 Chemistry of Biological Systems and Cells 129 Classifications of the Biota132 Genealogy and Evolutionary Relationships132 Classification within a Kingdom136 Ecosystems and Their Dynamics 137 Components of Ecosystems137 Ecological Pyramids144 Terrestrial and Aquatic Ecosystems 146 Terrestrial Biomes147 Aquatic Biomes 147 Biomass and Productivity153 Fundamental Differences157 Concluding Comment157 Extinction157 Concluding Remarks160 Study Questions161 Additional Sources of Information162 7 Biogeochemical Cycles of Carbon, Nutrients, and Oxygen163 Construction of Global Biogeochemical Cycling Models 164 Reservoirs164 Transport Paths and Fluxes165 Modeling 166 Carbon167 Short-Term Cycling: Photosynthesis / Respiration 167 Long-Term Cycling: The CaCO3-SiO2 Connection170 Medium-Term Cycling: The Organic Matter-Oxygen Connection 172 The Methane Cycle: The Wetland-CH4 Connection 173 Summary 174 Oxygen174 Nitrogen 176 Sulfur 178 Phosphorus 180 C-N-P-S-O Cycles and Human Interference 182 Concluding Remarks185 Study Questions185 Additional Sources of Information186 8 Historical Framework of Global Environmental Change187 The Big Bang-The Evolving Universe 187 Evolution of Planet Earth191 Hadean Eon: Earth's Violent Beginning 193 Precambrian Eon: Radical Atmospheric Changes and the Beginnings of Life 198 Phanerozoic Eon: Life Multiplies and Wanders204 Concluding Remarks 212 Study Questions 212 Additional Sources of Information 213 9 Human Forcings on the Ecosphere: World Population, Development, and Resource Consumption214 Brief Historical Review 214 Industrial and Human Population Trends 217 Industrialization217 Population Growth218 Gross National and Domestic Products (GNP and GDP)228 Resources: Energy and Minerals 235 Energy Resources235 Summary248 Mineral Resources249 Conservation 253 Concluding Remarks and the 21st Century 254 Study Questions 257 Additional Sources of information 258 10 The Changing Earth Surface: Terrestrial Vegetation259 Forests Worldwide 260 Global Forest Assessments260 Historical Estimates of Wooded and Forested Land260 Forests of the Past261 Forests of Today263 The Impact of Human Activities on Forests265 Forest Ecosystems: The Effects of Change273 Causes of Deforestation280 Summary284 Domesticated Ecosystems: Agrosystems as an Example 285 Fertilizers287 Pesticides289 Irrigation Systems291 Food Resources291 Concluding Remarks and the 21st Century 293 End Note 294 Study Questions 294 Additional Sources of Information 295 11 The Changing Earth Surface: Land and Water 296 The Soil Ecosystem 297 Soil Conditions297 Summary307 The Coupled Land-Water Ecosystem 308 Freshwater Resources309 Water Pollution311 Coastal Zones321 Concluding Remarks and the 21st Century 334 Study Questions 335 Additional Sources of Information 336 12 The Changing Atmosphere: Acid Deposition and Photochemical Smog 337 Acid Deposition339 Formation of Nitrogen and Sulfur Oxides339 pH Factor340 Sweden's Dying Lakes341 Sources of Sulfur and Nitrogen Oxides344 Sensitivity to Acid Deposition346 Emission Abatement Measures355 Photochemical Smog 364 Urban Pollution365 Tropospheric Ozone368 Sources of VOCs and Nitrogen Oxides369 Effects of Air Pollution on Health371 Controlling Tropospheric Ozone371 Concluding Remarks and the 21st Century 373 Study Questions 376 Additional Sources of Information 377 13 The Changing Ecosphere: Pleistocene and Holocene Environmental Change 378 Records of Climate 379 Factors Influencing Climate 380 Fluctuations in Solar Energy380 Orbital Parameters382 Planetary Albedo388 Climate and Environment of the More Recent Past 392 Pleistocene Epoch392 Holocene Epoch403 Concluding Remarks and the 21st Century 406 o Study Questions 409 o Additional Sources of Information 409 14 The Changing Atmosphere: Global Warming and Stratospheric Ozone Depletion 410 The Greenhouse Effect and Climatic Change 412 Enhanced Greenhouse Effect414 Atmospheric Greenhouse Gases415 World Distribution of Human Sources of Greenhouse Gases434 Climate and Ecologic Consequences of an Enhanced o Greenhouse Effect440 Concluding Comments473 Stratospheric Ozone and the Hole in the Sky 480 The Importance of Ozone480 The Measurement of Ozone481 The Ozone Balance482 The Ozone-Depleting Chemicals483 History of Ozone Depletion483 Recent Findings Concerning Ozone Depletion490 Concluding Remarks and the 2Tst Century 496 Study Questions 497 Additional Sources of Information 497 Chapter 15 Human Dimensions of Global Environmental Change in the Twenty-First Century 499 What We Know and Future Concerns 500 Human-Induced Global Environmental Change500 Reactions to Global Environmental Change Issues505 An Example of Global Environmental Policy 515 The National Research Council Recommendations515 Factors Involved in Policy Decisions516 Approaches to Global Environmental Cooperation 517 Business as Usual517 Global Partnership517. Global Governance518 The Question of Sustainability 518 Equity Condition 519 Legacy Condition519 Continuity Condition519 Concluding Comment520 Concluding Remarks and the 21st Century 520 End Note524 Study Questions 525 Additional Sources of Information525 Appendix 526 Glossary 534 References 550 Index 562
0321667727
333.7 / MAC
Our changing planet : an introduction to earth system science and global environmental change - Ed.4 - New Delhi Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd. 2011 - xiv,579p.
CONTENTS Preface xi 1 Introduction: The Changing Planetary System1 Space and Time Perspective of the World's People 2 Space and Time Scales of Earth Processes 3 The Concept of Cycling 4 The Technosphere 5 The Natural System and its Human Dimensions 7 Additional Sources of Information11 2 Earth's Lithosphere: Geologic Time and Building Blocks12 Geologic Framework of Time 13 Some Historical Events 13 The Geologic Time Scale15 Earth's Building Blocks: Minerals 18 Earth's Building Blocks: Rocks 22 Igneous Rocks22 Sedimentary Rocks23 Deep-Sea Sediments and Earth History26 Metamorphic Rocks31 Soils 31 Soil Classification33 Climate and Soils34 Concluding Remarks 38 Study Questions 38 Additional Sources of Information 39 3 Earth's Lithosphere: Plate Tectonics 40 Earth's Interior 42 The Core of Earth45 The Mantle of Earth45 The Crust and Lithosphere of Earth 47 Oceanic Crust47 Continental Crust54 Concluding Remarks 63 Study Questions 65 Additional Sources of Information 65 4 The Fluid Earth: Atmosphere 66 The Atmosphere 67 Stratosphere 75 Troposphere 75 Air Masses80 Clouds83 Prediction of Weather and Climate 85 Concluding Remarks 86 Study Questions 88 Additional Sources of Information 89 5 The Fluid Earth: Hydrosphere and Air-Sea Interactions 90 The Water Cycle 91 Water Reservoirs 91 Oceans93 Cryosphere 109 Minor Water Reservoirs110 The Air-Sea Interactions 111 Intertropical Convergence Zone111 El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) 113 The Atlantic and Pacific Decadal Oscillations123 Concluding Remarks125 Study Questions126 Additional Sources of Information127 6 Our Living Planet: Earth's Ecosphere128 Chemistry of Biological Systems and Cells 129 Classifications of the Biota132 Genealogy and Evolutionary Relationships132 Classification within a Kingdom136 Ecosystems and Their Dynamics 137 Components of Ecosystems137 Ecological Pyramids144 Terrestrial and Aquatic Ecosystems 146 Terrestrial Biomes147 Aquatic Biomes 147 Biomass and Productivity153 Fundamental Differences157 Concluding Comment157 Extinction157 Concluding Remarks160 Study Questions161 Additional Sources of Information162 7 Biogeochemical Cycles of Carbon, Nutrients, and Oxygen163 Construction of Global Biogeochemical Cycling Models 164 Reservoirs164 Transport Paths and Fluxes165 Modeling 166 Carbon167 Short-Term Cycling: Photosynthesis / Respiration 167 Long-Term Cycling: The CaCO3-SiO2 Connection170 Medium-Term Cycling: The Organic Matter-Oxygen Connection 172 The Methane Cycle: The Wetland-CH4 Connection 173 Summary 174 Oxygen174 Nitrogen 176 Sulfur 178 Phosphorus 180 C-N-P-S-O Cycles and Human Interference 182 Concluding Remarks185 Study Questions185 Additional Sources of Information186 8 Historical Framework of Global Environmental Change187 The Big Bang-The Evolving Universe 187 Evolution of Planet Earth191 Hadean Eon: Earth's Violent Beginning 193 Precambrian Eon: Radical Atmospheric Changes and the Beginnings of Life 198 Phanerozoic Eon: Life Multiplies and Wanders204 Concluding Remarks 212 Study Questions 212 Additional Sources of Information 213 9 Human Forcings on the Ecosphere: World Population, Development, and Resource Consumption214 Brief Historical Review 214 Industrial and Human Population Trends 217 Industrialization217 Population Growth218 Gross National and Domestic Products (GNP and GDP)228 Resources: Energy and Minerals 235 Energy Resources235 Summary248 Mineral Resources249 Conservation 253 Concluding Remarks and the 21st Century 254 Study Questions 257 Additional Sources of information 258 10 The Changing Earth Surface: Terrestrial Vegetation259 Forests Worldwide 260 Global Forest Assessments260 Historical Estimates of Wooded and Forested Land260 Forests of the Past261 Forests of Today263 The Impact of Human Activities on Forests265 Forest Ecosystems: The Effects of Change273 Causes of Deforestation280 Summary284 Domesticated Ecosystems: Agrosystems as an Example 285 Fertilizers287 Pesticides289 Irrigation Systems291 Food Resources291 Concluding Remarks and the 21st Century 293 End Note 294 Study Questions 294 Additional Sources of Information 295 11 The Changing Earth Surface: Land and Water 296 The Soil Ecosystem 297 Soil Conditions297 Summary307 The Coupled Land-Water Ecosystem 308 Freshwater Resources309 Water Pollution311 Coastal Zones321 Concluding Remarks and the 21st Century 334 Study Questions 335 Additional Sources of Information 336 12 The Changing Atmosphere: Acid Deposition and Photochemical Smog 337 Acid Deposition339 Formation of Nitrogen and Sulfur Oxides339 pH Factor340 Sweden's Dying Lakes341 Sources of Sulfur and Nitrogen Oxides344 Sensitivity to Acid Deposition346 Emission Abatement Measures355 Photochemical Smog 364 Urban Pollution365 Tropospheric Ozone368 Sources of VOCs and Nitrogen Oxides369 Effects of Air Pollution on Health371 Controlling Tropospheric Ozone371 Concluding Remarks and the 21st Century 373 Study Questions 376 Additional Sources of Information 377 13 The Changing Ecosphere: Pleistocene and Holocene Environmental Change 378 Records of Climate 379 Factors Influencing Climate 380 Fluctuations in Solar Energy380 Orbital Parameters382 Planetary Albedo388 Climate and Environment of the More Recent Past 392 Pleistocene Epoch392 Holocene Epoch403 Concluding Remarks and the 21st Century 406 o Study Questions 409 o Additional Sources of Information 409 14 The Changing Atmosphere: Global Warming and Stratospheric Ozone Depletion 410 The Greenhouse Effect and Climatic Change 412 Enhanced Greenhouse Effect414 Atmospheric Greenhouse Gases415 World Distribution of Human Sources of Greenhouse Gases434 Climate and Ecologic Consequences of an Enhanced o Greenhouse Effect440 Concluding Comments473 Stratospheric Ozone and the Hole in the Sky 480 The Importance of Ozone480 The Measurement of Ozone481 The Ozone Balance482 The Ozone-Depleting Chemicals483 History of Ozone Depletion483 Recent Findings Concerning Ozone Depletion490 Concluding Remarks and the 2Tst Century 496 Study Questions 497 Additional Sources of Information 497 Chapter 15 Human Dimensions of Global Environmental Change in the Twenty-First Century 499 What We Know and Future Concerns 500 Human-Induced Global Environmental Change500 Reactions to Global Environmental Change Issues505 An Example of Global Environmental Policy 515 The National Research Council Recommendations515 Factors Involved in Policy Decisions516 Approaches to Global Environmental Cooperation 517 Business as Usual517 Global Partnership517. Global Governance518 The Question of Sustainability 518 Equity Condition 519 Legacy Condition519 Continuity Condition519 Concluding Comment520 Concluding Remarks and the 21st Century 520 End Note524 Study Questions 525 Additional Sources of Information525 Appendix 526 Glossary 534 References 550 Index 562
0321667727
333.7 / MAC